







































/ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 






I , A HISTORY 

OF 

THE UNITED STATES 


✓ 





Author of “A Reference Manual and Outlines of United States History,” 
‘‘The Civil War by Campaigns,” ‘‘The Illustrative His¬ 
torical Chart,” and a Series of Historical 
Outline Maps. 






TOPEKA, KANSAS. 
Historical Publishing Co. 
1912. 





on 

,/ 

. E75 


Copyright 1912, 

BY 

E. G. Foster. 


Printed by 
Crane & Company 
Topeka 



C Cl.A31 4389 


INTRODUCTION. 


In writing this book the author has held in mind the presenta¬ 
tion of the leading facts in a clear, direct and interesting form# 
While clearness and simplicity of expression were aimed at, 
sufficient material has been inserted in the text to absorb the 
careful and conscientious efforts of the aspiring student. 

In the organization of the book due regard has been paid to 
logical arrangement and development of subjects, and to plac¬ 
ing many important topics, like the Monroe Doctrine, Com¬ 
promise of 1850, Bland-Allison Act, and other events, in a 
form easily understood and remembered by the pupil. 

The chapter rather than the topic is the unit, but the topic 
is given sufficient prominence to induce careful study of it as 
well as of its relation to other events. 

An examination of the text will show that some attention 
was paid to gradation, the earlier events being treated in a 
simpler form than those of a later period. 

Enough names, events and dates have been given to tell 
briefly the history of the Nation. The teacher must use dis¬ 
cretion in selecting the more important facts for special study 
and in passing more lightly over those of less consequence. 
Dates in parentheses, as well as some others, while not of suffi¬ 
cient importance to be memorized, are of value in giving the 
sequence of events. 

The author has made liberal use of maps and other illus¬ 
trations. The maps showing the territorial growth include 
not only the general extent of territory acquired, but also 



4 


Introduction. 


define^ limits by parallels, meridians, and rivers, so that the 
more careful student can locate the true boundaries by accu¬ 
rate description. The war maps show not detached and isolated 
battles, but whole campaigns, in which the movements of 
armies are traced from start to finish, following the plan of 
discussion in the text. This does away with the details of 
battle, giving a broader scope of the subject, and shows that 
battles are not generally accidents but the results of well-laid 
plans carefully executed. 

The pupil should be encouraged to study the maps care¬ 
fully and make rapid sketches of places, boundaries, territorial 
acquisitions, and movements of armies. This should be supple¬ 
mented by more careful map work, outlines of which can be 
purchased at reasonable prices. 

In addition to the maps and numerous pictures of prom¬ 
inent men and noted buildings, there are copies of famous paint¬ 
ings, w T hich vividly portray historic scenes and events, and 
should inspire the pupil. 

In the period since the Revolutionary War emphasis has 
been laid on the efforts to strengthen the Nation; on the course 
of events in our struggle for commercial independence from 
Europe, ending in the War of 1812 ; on the conflict between the 
forces of freedom and of slavery, terminating in the Civil War; 
on the reconstruction of the Nation; on the territorial expan¬ 
sion ; on the financial acts and sources of national revenue; 
on the important inventions, and on the marvelous industrial 
and commercial growth. 

The pupil who reads the history of his country should learn 
several important lessons/ First, he should become a better 
and more patriotic citizen, because in studying the social, re¬ 
ligious, political and military movements which have solved 
problems of the past and made the Nation great, he learns that 


Introduction. 


5 


these achievements were not attained without courage, con¬ 
flict, hardship, sacrifice, suffering, and steadfast devotion to 
duty. 

Second, he should be inspired to make more extended and 
careful study of history. 

Third, he should learn something of the “ problems of the 
day”—social, political, financial, and industrial. From these 
he should acquire practical knowledge, which will make him 
a more useful citizen and prepare him to help solve the prob¬ 
lems which confront him in life. 

Suggestions for review are given at the end of each chapter, 
not with the thought that the teacher may exactly follow the 
questions, but rather that they may be used as the basis for 
a review of the chapter. 

The author is under obligations to a number of teachers and 
superintendents for practical suggestions, and to several prin¬ 
cipals of ward schools for a careful reading of the manuscript. 
He is especially indebted, for a critical reading of the manu¬ 
script and for suggestions, to Dr. F. F. Stephens, of the Depart¬ 
ment of History, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; 
and to Professor William MacDonald, Professor of American 
History, of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. 


MAPS. 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 
9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20 . 
21 . 
22 . 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. | 

36. 

37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43. 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 


Page 


Old Trade Routes to India. 16 

The Toscanelli Map. 18 

Voyages of Columbus. 22 

Line of Demarcation and noted Voyages.-. 23 

Original Distribution of Indian Tribes. 47 

Grants to the London and Plymouth Companies. 51 

Virginia..•. 52 

New England. 66 

Middle Colonies. 85 


East Jersey and West Jersey. 88 

Southern Colonies. 94 

French Settlements. 103 

Territorial Possessions (1755-1763). 104 

French Forts and Braddock’s Defeat. Ill 

Territorial Possessions (1763-1783). 115 

Proclamation Line, Indian Country and Quebec. 117 

Operations around Boston. 155 

Early Campaigns of the Revolutionary War. 157 

Washington’s Campaigns. > . 162 

Route of George Rogers Clark. 176 

Southern Campaigns of the Revolutionary War. 182 

The United States, 1783. 188 

The United States, and State Claims to Western Lands (col¬ 
ored),.'. facing 191 

The Northwest Territory. 192 

Louisiana Purchase (colored). facing 239 

The Lewis and Clark Expedition. 240 

Campaigns of the War of 1812. 250 

Early Routes for Transportation over the Mountains. 263 

The Maine Boundary. 291 

The Republic of Texas. 302 

The Oregon Country. 304 

Campaigns of the Mexican War. 309 

Compromise of 1850. 319 

Kansas-Nebraska Act. 325 


The United States, 1820 (colored) ) 

The United States, 1854 (colored) (. 

The United States during the Civil War. 

Grant’s Campaigns in the West. 

Campaigns of Buell and Bragg. 

Chattanooga. 

The Army of the Potomac. 

Gettysburg. 

Territorial Growth of the United States (colored) 

The United States and her Possessions. 

Center of Population. 

Philippine Islands. 

Panama Canal Zone. 

Alaskan Boundary. 


.facing 327 

. 338 

. 351 

. 354 

. 359 

. 371 

. 375 

. 404 

. 449 

. 457 

. 470 

. 475 

. 477 


6 

















































TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Chapter Page 

I. Early Europe and the Discovery of America. 

Early Inhabitants. 13 

Conditions in Europe. 15 

America Discovered. 17 

II. Period of Exploration. 

Spanish Explorers. 27 

French Explorers. 31 

English Explorers. 34 

Dutch and Portuguese Explorers. 38 

III. The Continent an© the Indians. 

The Continent. . 41 

The Indians. 42 

IV. The Period of Settlement. 

America no Place for the Indolent. 49 

Settlement of Virginia. 50 

V. Period of Settlement. 

New England... 62 

Massachusetts. 62 

Connecticut. 73 

Rhode Island. 76 

New Hampshire. 78 

Maine. 78 

VI. Period of Settlement. 

Middle Colonies. 80 

New York..•. 80 

Delaware.. 83 

Maryland. 84 

New Jersey. 87 

Pennsylvania. 88 

VII. Period of Settlement. 

Southern Colonies. 94 

The Carolinas. 94 

Georgia. 96 

VIII. Growth of the French Power. 100 


7 





























8 


Table of Contents. 


Chapter Page 

IX. The Struggle for Supremacy in America. 

King William’s War. 106 

Queen Anne’s War. 107 

King George’s War. 109 

The French and Indian War. 109 

X. Life in the Colonies. 119 

XI. The American Revolution. 

Causes and Events Leading to the Revolution. 136 

XII. The American Revolution. 

Early Events.. 151 

Washington’s Campaigns in New York and New Jersey, 160 

XIII. Campaigns in the North. 

Burgoyne’s Invasion. 165 

Washington’s Campaigns (continued). 170 

War in the Western Bordef. 174 

Indian Massacres. 174 

XIV. Campaigns in the South. 180 

XV.^Formation of the Constitution. 

Articles of Confederation. 190 

Formation and Adoption of the Constitution. 196 

American Literature. 200 

The Constitution of the United States. 203 

XVI. Establishing a Government.' 

Washington’s Administration. 217 

XVII. Establishing a Government. 

John Adams’s Administration. 230 

XVIII. Establishing a Government. 

Jefferson’s Administration. 235 

XIX. The Struggle for Commercial Freedom. 

Events Leading to the War of 1812. 243 

Madison’s Administration. 246 

The War of 1812. 249 

XX. Development of the West and Means of Trans¬ 
portation. 259 

XXI. The Monroe Doctrine, Missouri Compromise, and 
Protective Tariff. 

Monroe’s Administration. 269 

John Quincy Adams’s Administration. 275 



























Table of Contents. 


9 


Chapter Page 

XXII. From Jackson to Polk. 

Jackson’s Administration. 279 

Van Buren’s Administration. 285 

Anti-Slavery Movement, 1820-1840. 286 

Harrison and Tyler’s Administration. 289 

XXIII. Inventions and Industrial Development. 294 

XXIV. Struggle for More Territory, Resulting in the 
Mexican War. 

Texas and Oregon.302 

Polk’s Administration. 306 

The Mexican War. 308 

XXV. Questions Arising out of the Annexation of Terri¬ 
tory (Administration of Taylor and Fillmore).... 314 

XXVI. The Approaching Crisis. 

Period of Popular Sovereignty (Administration of 
Pierce). 322 

XXVII. The Approaching Crisis. 

Dred Scott Decision, Personal-Liberty Laws, and Se¬ 
cession (Buchanan’s Administration). 331 

XXVIII. The Civil War. 

Lincoln’s Administration.. 341 

The Opening Events of the War. 343 

XXIX. The Campaigns of the Civil War. 

General Plans. 350 

Grant in the West. 350 

Campaigns of Buell and Bragg. 353 

XXX. The Navy of the Civil War. 361 

XXXI. Campaigns of the Civil War. 

Army of the Potomac. 368 

Sherman’s March. 380 

Army of the Potomac ^continued). 383 

XXXII. Cost and Finances of the War. 

Cost of the War. 391 

Finances of the War. 393 

XXXIII. Reconstruction. 397 

XXXIV. From Grant to Garfield. 

Grant’s Administration. 406 

Settlement of the West. 409 

Hayes’s Administration... 419 



























10 


Table of Contents. 


Chapter Page 

XXXV. From Garfield to McKinley. 

Garfield’s Administration. 424 

Cleveland’s Administration. 428 

Harrison’s Administration. 432 

Cleveland’s Second Administration. 436 

XXXVI. Annexation of Islands and Spanish-American War. 

McKinley's Administration. 442 

XXXVII. National Development Since 1860. 

Inventions. 451 

Industrial and Commercial. 452 

Education.. 460 

Literature. 464 

XXXVIII. Recent Problems and Events. 

New Problems. * . ?. . .. 469 

Roosevelt’s Administration. 474 

Taft’s Administration. 481 




















, 

















. 






























- 








* • 























































HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER I. 

EARLY EUROPE AND THE DISCOVERY OF 
AMERICA. 

The Early Inhabitants of America. To Christopher 
Columbus belongs the undying glory of the discovery of Amer¬ 
ica in 1492. This marks the beginning of the history of the 
western hemisphere. The period before this time is shrouded 
in mystery. It is known only as we catch glimpses here and 
there through the traditions handed down by the Indians, or 
by a study of the relics and utensils which the ancient tribes 
of dusky people left behind. There is no written record to tell 
any of the history of the original tribes, where they came from,, 
or how long they lived here. The most plausible theory of 
their origin is that they came to America from Asia at a time 
when the two continents may have been linked together, or 
that they crossed in canoes, aided by ocean currents, from 
island to island, until they planted foot on America. 

Mound Builders and Cliff Dwellers. A large number of 
mounds, containing crude implements and tools, have been 
found in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and at other places. 
These are supposed to have been the work of ancient tribes called 
Mound Builders, who used them for fortifications, for religious 
rites, or village defenses. In the southwestern part of the United 
States there yet remain great stone buildings, built in secure 
places or carved out of the rocky cliffs high up on the sides of 
deep ravines or gorges. These were the homes of the Cliff Dwell¬ 
ers, tribes now extinct. Some persons believe that the Mound 
Builders and Cliff Dwellers were races different from the Ameri¬ 
can Indian, and that they were driven out or destroyed by a, 
more warlike race. But the most careful students of these early 
people believe that both Mound Builder and Cliff Dweller were 

13 




14 


History of the United States. 


simply different tribes of the ancestors of the American Indian, 
ivho differed no more from the Indian than the Indian tribes 
found on the continent differed from one another. 

The Northmen. The Northmen, or Norsemen, were a 
hardy, warlike, sea-roving people who lived in Scandinavia. 
Centuries before Columbus discovered America, in barks, 
driven by sail and oar, they skimmed the stormy Atlantic, 
eager for adventure and conquest. They made fierce raids 
along the coast of Europe, and conquered England after many 
attacks. These sea-rovers discovered and settled Iceland, 
planted a colony on the coast *of Greenland, and probably 



reached the coast of North America. Records in Iceland called 
4i Sagas” tell that Leif Ericson with a crew of thirty-five men 
sailed southwest from Iceland and landed on the Atlantic 
-coast in the year 1000. This was probably along the coast 
of Newfoundland or Labrador. He named the country Vin- 








Early Europe—Discovery of America. 


15 


land. According to the story, other voyages were made to 
America, but, owing to the fierceness of the natives, no perma¬ 
nent settlements were made. Columbus had no positive knowl¬ 
edge of these alleged discoveries. 

CONDITIONS IN EUROPE. 

Europe Rent by Wars. Europe had for centuries been the 
scene of fierce and bloody wars. But little progress could be 
made when the energies of the people were given to warfare. 
A series of struggles called the Crusades were waged from about 
1090 to 1291, in which tens of thousands of lives were lost. 
In these Crusades the European Christians invaded western 
Asia to rescue Jerusalem from the Mohammedans. Later, the 
Hundred Years War was carried on between France and Eng¬ 
land (1337-1453).* Following this came the Civil Wars of the 
Roses (1455-1485), in wdiich two rival houses In England were 
fighting for the crown. After the Crusades eastern Europe 
suffered from invasions by the Turks from Asia, who at last 
captured Constantinople in 1453. Finally there came the 
dawrn of better days, the return of comparative peace, when 
men began to turn their energies to study, commerce, farming, 
discovery, and navigation. 

Intellectual Awakening. Learning had for centuries been 
confined to a few. The great mass of the people were ignorant 
and superstitious. There were but few schools. The inven¬ 
tion of the printing-press about 1450 cheapened books and 
spread the means of culture broadcast. Before the end of the 
century there were in Europe more than two hundred presses, 
printing books and pamphlets. This was the dawn of a new 
era in the world’s history. The spirit of inquiry took hold of 
the people. They began to look for better things in govern¬ 
ment and religion, and sought new routes for commerce and 
new lands for conquest. But little was then known of Asia 
and Africa, and nothing of the two Americas and Australia. 

The compass, though known for centuries, now first came 
into practical use on ships. The astrolabe, by means of which 

* Dates in parentheses need not be committed to memory. 


16 


History of the United States. 


latitude could be determined from heavenly bodies, also be¬ 
came an aid to navigation. The art of printing from movable 
types was invented about 1450.* A few, like Columbus, who 
followed the teachings of Aristotle, f believed the earth to be 
round. But the common people believed that the earth was 
a flat body, around which circled the mysterious ocean within 
whose distant parts lived great monsters ready te swallow ships 
and sailors who might venture too far from land. 

Commerce with the East. The people of southern Europe 
had for several centuries carried on trade with Asia and the 
East Indies. Oriental silks, muslins, perfumes, precious stones, 
spices and ivory were exchanged for metals and other products 
of Europe. Genoa and Venice became great commercial cities 
and grew rich through traffic with the East. Regular trade 
routes were established. The merchants of Venice carried on 
trade through the Mediterranean to Alexandria, thence by way 



Old Trade Routes to India. 

Northern Route controlled by Genoa. Southern Route controlled by Venice. 


of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean; those of Genoa, through 
the Mediterranean to Constantinople, thence through the 

* The credit of this invention is generally given to Johannes Gutenburg, of Germany. 
William Caxton set up the first printing-press in England, 1471. 

t The great natural philosopher who lived in Greece more than 300 years before the 
birth of Christ. 










Early Europe—Discovery of America. 17 

Black and Caspian seas to the continent, or down the valley 
of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers through the Persian Gulf. 
Another route lay across Persia from Antioch to the Euphrates 
river. 

The capture of Constantinople and finally of Alexandria, was 
a serious blow to commerce with the East. Trade was not 
forbidden by the Turks, who now controlled the eastern Medi¬ 
terranean and the Black seas, but life and property were not 
safe. Europe felt the burden, and eagerly began to look for 
new routes to Asia. 

Portuguese Discoveries. The Portuguese were the first 
to seek a new route to Asia. Before the Turks captured Con¬ 
stantinople they had braved the Atlantic in their small boats, 
and had discovered the Madeira, Azore, and Cape Verde islands. 
Prince Henry, called the “ Navigator,” was the moving spirit 
among the Portuguese in creating a desire for voyage and dis¬ 
covery. He established a school of navigation on Cape St. 
Vincent, and brought experienced sea-captains and able teach¬ 
ers from distant lands. Farther and farther the Portuguese 
followed the unknown coast of Africa. By the middle of the 
15th century they had reached the coast of upper Guinea. 
In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern point of 
Africa and named it the Cape of Storms. On hearing of this 
achievement, King John of Portugal, filled with hope of final 
success, changed the name of “Cape of Storms” to Cape of 
Good Hope. Just before the close of the century (1498) Vasco 
da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, crossed the Indian 
Ocean to Calicut, and returned with a cargo of the coveted 
spices and precious stones. 

AMERICA DISCOVERED. 

Christopher Columbus.—Early Life. Christopher Co¬ 
lumbus was born in Genoa, a seaport town in Italy (about 
1446). He was the son of a wool-comber. In boyhood he 
studied geography and Latin, and later gained skill in drawing 
maps and charts. “God has given me a genius and hands apt 
to draw the globe,” he said, “and on it the cities, rivers, 


18 


History of the United States. 

islands and ports, all in their proper places.” At an early age 

he became a sailor. He traversed the 
Mediterranean, visited England, and 
perhaps Iceland. “ Wherever ships 
have sailed, there I have journeyed,” 
he wrote. When in Portugal he 
married the daughter of a noted navi¬ 
gator, whose maps and charts after his 
death were given to Columbus. A 
new book written by Marco Polo 
after he had spent many years in 
China and the far East, giving a 
vivid account of those strange lands, 

Christopher Columbus. . . ~ . , , 

After a portrait in the collection deeply impressed Columbus, but he 

?empo?a°ne?isS 0, wTth° Cofumbut was influenced more by a map sent 
tml^keSsT'of^he^fe^S^of to him by the celebrated astronomer, 
Columbus. Toscanelli, which he carried with him 

on his voyage of discovery. The map pictured the eastern 
coast of Asia near where the western coast of America now is, 



The Toscanelli Map. (Simplified.) America added. 

This is the map Columbus had with him on the voyage which resulted in the discovery 
of America. 
























Early Europe—Discovery of America. 


19 


and included many imaginary islands. (See map.) Asia was 
supposed to be 2,500 miles west of the Canary Islands. Colum¬ 
bus believed firmly that the earth was a sphere, and that by 
sailing westward he would arrive at Asia by the shortest route. 
But he was poor, and had no means to fit out an expedition to 
test his belief. 

Efforts to Obtain Aid. His heroic struggle for aid to 
carry out his purpose stamps him as a very unusual type of 
man. The story of his wanderings from nation to nation in 
poverty and distress, for eighteen years, entreating merchants 
and monarchs, monks and nobles to aid in fitting out ships 
for the voyage which ended finally in the discovery of a new 
continent, is stranger than romantic fiction. Still loyal to 
his native city, he applied to the senate of Genoa for help. 
He next turned to King John II., of Portugal, who secretly 
sent out caravels to seek Asia. But the sailors lost he'art after 
a brief absence, and returned home. Disgusted at such treat¬ 
ment, Columbus left Portugal and'journeyed to Spain, while 
he sent his brother to England to seek aid of Henry VII. All 
efforts had failed. The Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and 
Isabella, were busy at war with the Moors (1492). Despairing 
of any help in Spain, he set out for France. Then it was he 
received a. message from Queen Isabella, inviting him to court. 
She listened to his 



pleadings, and of¬ 
fered him means to 
make the voyage. 
But Columbus 
wanted to be made 
admiral of the 
ocean and viceroy 
of the heathen 
lands he might dis¬ 
cover, and share a 
part of the profits 


Isabella and Ferdinand. 


from trade and conquest. The monarchs would not consent to 
this, so Columbus again started for France; but some of the 




20 History of the United States. 

Spanish nobility implored the Queen not to let the golden 
opportunity slip away. “Small will be the cost of the voyage 
if undertaken,” they said, “but great will be the regret if some 
rival nation should reap the prize offered to Spain.” Messen¬ 
gers again brought Columbus to the court, and, complying with 
his demands, plans were made to fit out the expedition. 

The First Voyage, 1492-1493. Three small vessels, the 
Santa Maria, Pinta, and Nina, were obtained. It was more 


The Caravels. 

Pinta, Santa Maria, and Nina—vessels in which Columbus made his first voyage. 

difficult to get sailors. By persuasion, and promise of reward, 
and finally by use of force, crews were secured,—about 100 
sailors and twenty gentlemen adventurers. Columbus, who 
was courageous, kind, patient, a skilled navigator and schooled 
by years of hardship, was an ideal leader for such an under¬ 
taking. On Friday, August 3, 1492, the caravels set sail from 
Palos, Spain, on what proved to be the most famous voyage in 
the history of the world. The Santa Maria, the largest vessel, 




Early Europe—Discovery of America. 21 

was only sixty-three feet long, a mere toy compared with ves¬ 
sels of today. They sailed to the Canary Islands; then steered 
directly west. With no land in sight after weeks of sailing, the 
sailors’ hopes gave way to fear. They tried to force Columbus 
to turn back, and threatened to throw him overboard. He 
calmed their fears and pushed steadily on. October 7th, they 
saw a flock of birds. Pinzon, who commanded one of the ves¬ 
sels, induced Columbus to follow the birds to the southwest. 
Had he kept on his course westward he would have landed in 
Florida. At the end of ten weeks, on the night of October 
11th, Columbus saw a light in the distance. At two in the 
morning (Friday, October 12th), the cry “Land! Land!” was 
heard. At sunrise .Columbus and his men landed on the low, 
sandy shore. Kneeling upon the soil with tears of joy in his 
eyes, he gave thanks to God. They planted the cross and ban¬ 
ner of Spain, and took possession of the country in the name of 
Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen. To the island he 
gave*the name of San Salvador or Holy Redeemer.* Columbus 
believed he had reached the Indies; so he called the natives 
Indians, and the country the West Indies, since it was reached 
by sailing westward. He sailed along the eastern coast of 
Cuba and Hayti, which he named Hispaniola. Here the Santa 
Maria was wrecked. From her timbers he built a fort. Leav¬ 
ing provisions and a small garrison in possession of the fort, 
and taking with him several of the natives and many objects 
of interest, after an absence of over seven months Columbus 
returned to Spain. 

He received a royal welcome in Spain. Great crowds came 
to greet him and sing his praises. Those who once looked upon 
him as an idle dreamer now saw in him a great man of achieve¬ 
ment. The king and queen bestowed many honors upon him 
and listened with amazement to an account of his voyage. 

Other Voyages. After the eventful journey of 1492-1493, 
Columbus made three others. His second voyage, 1493-1496, 

* It was one of the Bahama Islands. Cat Island, Turk Island and Watling’s Island 
each claims to be the original San Salvador, but the weight of evidence favors the last- 
named island. 


22 


History of the United States. 



was on a grand scale. The monarchs spared neither care nor 
funds in fitting out the expedition. They believed that the 
fabled wealth of the Indies was within their grasp. Men of 
all classes crowded around Columbus, eager to make the voyage. 
A fleet of three large ships and fourteen caravels was fitted out, 
and set sail in September, 1493. On this voyage he discovered 
Jamaica and Porto Rico, and visited the coast of Hayti, only 
to find the fort which he had built on his first voyage in ruins, 
and the garrison massacred by the natives. He coasted along 
Cuba, believing it to be the eastern part of Asia. 

On his third voyage, 1498, he reached South America, near 
the mouth of the Orinoco river. Sailing to Hayti, he found a 
new governor in command, who arrested Columbus and sent 
him bound in chains to Spain, but he was released by the 
sovereigns. A new fleet was prepared, in which Columbus 
made his fourth and last voyage (1502-1504). He explored 
the coast of Central America in a vain effort to find the riches 
of which he had read in the book written by Marco Polo. 
Queen Isabella was dead. The crown had spent large sums of 
money, and no riches flowed into the treasury. Ferdinand was 
sadly disappointed; the people, too, from jealousy, ignorance 







Early Europe—Discovery of America. 23 

and disappointment, turned against Columbus. They said he 
had not brought the gold, jewels, precious stones, spices, silks, 
and fabrics, but had found only a “wilderness peopled by naked 
savages.” He returned from his last voyage broken in health 
and spirit, and two years later died in neglect and poverty, 
ignorant of the fact that he had discovered a new continent. 
The people of that time could not see the glory of the future, 
or they would have ministered tenderly to every need and want 
of the man who opened the “sea of darkness” and placed a new 
world within the reach of civilized man. 

Effect of the Discovery. Spain hurried a messenger to 
Rome to tell Pope Alexander VI. of the discovery of Columbus, 
and to get his authority to hold the new lands. Spain and 
Portugal were rivals. Both were eager for new commerce. 



The Portuguese had already (1442) received a decree from the 
Pope granting them control of all heathen lands discovered 















24 


History of the United States. 


along Africa or any which they might discover “as far as India.” 
The discovery of Columbus might, it was thought, bring on 
trouble between Portugal and Spain. The Pope, anxious to 
keep peace between the nations (1493), designated a dividing 
line, called the Line of Demarcation, extending from the north 
to the south pole, 100 leagues west of the Azores. All lands 
to the east of this line should belong to Portugal, all west should 
belong to Spain. 

News of Columbus’s discovery spread rapidly over Europe. 
People began to think as never before. The “Sea of Darkness” 
was now open to the vision of man. Soon its bosom was bear¬ 
ing the sails of the nations of Europe, each in quest of discovery, 
fame, commerce and fortune. Other nations, not willing to 
accept the Pope’s line of division, made explorations and dis¬ 
coveries. Soon England, France, Spain, Portugal, Holland and 
Sweden were rivals, not only for the commerce of Asia or the 
Indies, but for the fertile lands of a new continent. 

North America Discovered by John Cabot. Nations, 
like individuals, were eager to gain fame and territory by new 
discoveries. The first to sail under the English flag was John 
Cabot, a Venetian then resident in England. Receiving au¬ 
thority from Henry VII., King of England, he set sail in the 
spring of 1497, to find a northern and more direct route to the 
Indies and China, and to open up new avenues of trade which 
before had been monopolized by Venice and Genoa. By this 
route he hoped to avoid conflict with the Spanish and Portu¬ 
guese. He discovered the mainland of North America (1497) 
about fourteen months before Columbus reached the coast of 
South America. He first sighted land at Labrador, ran along 
the coast southward for many miles, and took possession of the 
country for the English King. 

John Cabot and Sebastian, his son, made a second voyage 
(1498), and explored the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to 
the Carolinas. Upon these discoveries and the settlements 
which followed, England based her claims to territory in 
America. 


25 


Early Europe—Discovery of America. 

The New Continent Named America. America was named 
after Americus Vespucius, an Italian, who made several voyages 
of discovery under Spanish and Por¬ 
tuguese flags. His first voyage was 
made from Cadiz as pilot for Pinzon 
and Solis (1497-1498), who sailed 
along the coast of Mexico for a con¬ 
siderable distance. On his second 
voyage (1499)* under the Spanish 
flag, he sailed along the northeast 
coast of South America, following the 
course of Columbus and using his 
charts. He afterwards made two 
more voyages in the service of Portu¬ 
gal, passing along the coast of Brazil 
until he met great icebergs. The 
great length of the coast led Vespucius to believe that the land 
was not an island, nor, since it lay south of the equator, a part 
of Asia. He was thus the first explorer actually to realize that 
a new world had been found. On his return he published a 
pamphlet (1504) giving an account of what he believed to be 
a new continent. A German professor, who read Vespucius’s 
account of his voyages, printed a little book, a treatise on 
geography (1507). In it he suggested that the new land dis¬ 
covered by Vespucius (South America) be called America. 
That discovered by Columbus was then considered a part of 
Asia. The suggestion was readily taken up, and soon the name 
America was applied to North America as well. Thus, through 
misunderstanding and without intentional injustice to Colum¬ 
bus, the continent was named in honor of Americus Vespucius 
instead of Christopher Columbus. 

♦The second voyage is frequently ascribed to Sebastian Cabot. Henry Harrisse in 
his critical work on the discovery of America gives the credit of the voyage to John Cabot 







26 History of the United States. 

Suggestions for Review. 

♦ 

Who were the Mound Builders? Cliff Dwellers? Northmen? Where 
was Vinland? Tell of the intellectual awakening preceding the discovery 
of America. What new instruments aided the explorers? What progress 
had the Portuguese made in navigation and discovery by the latter part 
of the Fifteenth Century? Who was Christopher Columbus? Give an 
account of his beliefs, training, efforts to obtain financial aid, and tell the 
story of his great voyage of discovery. What were the results? What 
evidence of the existence of a new world did Columbus take with him? 
Discuss the other voyages of Columbus. What was the Line of Demar¬ 
cation? Who first saw South America? Who first landed on the con¬ 
tinent of North America? How was America named? 

Outline the important events in the chapter. 


CHAPTER II. 

PERIOD OF EXPLORATION. 

SPANISH EXPLORERS. 

Settlement of the West Indies. There may be some re¬ 
gret that Columbus did not reach the shores of North America. 
In the end it proved fortunate. Had he discovered the main¬ 
land, it is probable that the Spaniards would have settled where 
the English did, and thus have entirely changed the course of 
events in America. Nearly all the Spanish explorers followed 
the course of Columbus to the West Indies. Cuba, Hayti, 
Porto Rico and Jamaica were soon settled, and ruled by Spanish 
governors. From these islands as a base, Spaniards went to 
the southwest, to Mexico and north to the region along the 
Gulf, on voyages of exploration and conquest. 

Florida Discovered by Ponce de Leon, 1513. A halo of 
romance clings to the name of Ponce de Leon. He was a noted 
Spanish soldier, a companion of Columbus on his second voyage, 
and, though old, he was still ambitious. He had heard a 
tradition from the Indians that somewhere to the north there 
was a land rich in treasures, containing a fountain whose water 
possessed the magical power of restoring lost youth. After 
receiving a charter from the king, he set out from Porto Rico in 
quest of the land of promise. On Easter Sunday (Pascua 
Florida, in Spanish) he came to a land bright with flowers. 
In honor of the day he named it Florida. He found neither 
gold nor the fountain of youth, but on his return he discovered 
the Bahama Islands. De Leon made a second voyage to 
Florida, where he was shot by an Indian, and died from the 
effects of the wound. 

Balboa Discovered the Pacific Ocean, 1513. Balboa was 
a Spanish adventurer who had settled with others at Darien.* 

* Darien was the name given to a settlement made about 1509-11, on the east coast of 
what is now Panama. 


27 


28 


History of the United States. 


The natives of Panama told of a great body of water not far 
away. With a party of 190 men Balboa set out to explore the 
country and seek the sea beyond. After a difficult march, in 
which he had several encounters with the Indian tribes, he 
reached the summit of a high ridge. Here, as he gazed to the 
south, he saw a vast expanse of water which he named the 
South Sea. Descending to the shore, he waded knee-deep into 
the water, drew his sword, and took possession of the sea and 
bordering lands in the name of the sovereigns of Spain. 

Cortez Conquers Mexico. 1519-1521. Cordova (1517), 
who was sent out by Velasquez, Governor of Cuba, explored 
the coast of Mexico. The next year Grijalva made explora¬ 
tions along the coast, and found the natives more highly 
civilized than tribes elsewhere. They possessed rich treasures 
and ornaments of gold. Reports of their wealth induced Cortez 
to fit out an army for the conquest of Mexico. He landed at 
Vera Cruz, and marched forward to the land of the Aztecs. 
Montezuma, Emperor of the Aztec tribes, was taken prisoner, 
and in a fierce and bloody war which followed, the Aztec war¬ 
riors were defeated and their empire taken by the Spanish. 

The First Circumnavigation of the Globe. The most 
daring of all voyages of this period was made by Ferdinand de 
Magellan, in the years 1519-1522. 
After crossing the Atlantic, he 
doubled South America, passing 
through the strait that bears his 
name. He then launched out on the 
South Sea, which he named the Pacific 
Ocean, since it was so calm and peace¬ 
ful. Sailing northwest across the 
Pacific he came to the Philippine 
Islands, where he was killed in an 
encounter with the natives. One of 

Ferdinand de Maoeeean. h ; g lieutenants (Sebastian del Cano) * 

completed the voyage by sailing around Africa by way of the 

* The King of Spain gave Cano a coat of arms on which a globe was represented with 
the motto, “You first sailed around me.” 



Period of Exploration. 


29 


Cape of Good Hope. This was the first voyage around the 
world. It proved that the earth is round, and that the land 
discovered by Columbus and his followers was not Asia but a 
great continent of itself, and that beyond this continent was an 
ocean vastly greater than the “Sea of Darkness.” The voyage 
of Da Gama was remarkable, that of Columbus was even 
greater, but the distance sailed by Magellan was twice as 
great as the two combined. 

Spanish Explorations on the Pacific. In 1540 Coronado 
went in search of the “Seven cities of Cibola,” where gold and 
silver were supposed to exist in abundance. After wandering 
along the Gulf of California, he traveled north and east for 
hundreds of miles over a desolate region, and found no great 
cities or great wealth, but only the meager villages of the 
Indians. He traveled over Arizona, New Mexico, and Kansas. 

Cabrillo explored the Pacific coast (1542) as far as Oregon, 
and Alarcon explored the Colorado river, 1540-1541. 

De Espejo explored and named New Mexico, and planted the 
second permanent settlement within the present limits of the 
United States at Santa Fe, 1582. 

Explorations of de Ay lion and Narvaez. The Spaniards, 
making Cuba their base, turned north to explore what is now 
the southern part of the United States. DeAyllon sailed along 
the coast of Florida and South Carolina (1520), and six ye^-s 
later attempted to plant a colony on Chesapeake Bay. 

The story of Cortez's conquest of Mexico kindled the imag¬ 
ination of many a Spanish cavalier and inspired him to attempt 
similar deeds. Stories of untold wealth in the land of Florida 
led Narvaez to fit out an army of 400 men to search for the 
fancied treasures. They wandered for hundreds of miles with¬ 
out finding any. War, famine and disease rapidly reduced 
their number. On returning to the <coast, their ships were 
gone. They built new boats and followed the coast westward. 
Narvaez was drowned near the mouth of the Mississippi, and all 
but Cabeza DeVaca and three of his companions perished. 
These four were captured by the Indians. After years of 
captivity they managed to escape, and wandered in Mexico 


30 


History of the United States. 


for two years, finally reaching a Spanish settlement on the Gulf 
of California (1536). 

DeSoto, 1539-1542. DeSoto was a Spanish nobleman who 
aided Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. He had won fame and 
fortune. At his own request, he was appointed governor of 
Cuba and Florida, and wished to add to his laurels by explor¬ 
ing and conquering Florida. With an army of over 600 of the 
most gallant men in Spain, he landed at Tampa Bay, Florida 
(1539), and began a march of exploration and conquest. Tak¬ 
ing with him cattle and hogs for food, and bloodhounds to trail 
the Indians, DeSoto and his men passed through what are now 
the states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, dis¬ 
covered the Mississippi river (1541), and explored the region far 
beyond without finding the coveted treasures. Their treat- 



DeSoto’s Treatment of the Indians. 


ment of the Indians was most unjust and inhuman. Many 
natives were killed without cause, others were chained in pairs 
and made to serve the soldiers as beasts of burden. In May, 
1542, the explorers returned to the Mississippi river at the 
point where the Red river joins it. Here DeSoto, disappointed 
and sick at heart, took fever and died. The survivors sought 
to save their lives. In boats which they built they went down 
the Mississippi, and at length reached a Spanish settlement in 







Period of Exploration. 


31 


Mexico. Hunger, war and disease had reduced their numbers 
more than one-half, and those that remained were half naked 
and almost starved. 


THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS. 

Verrazano, 1524. The French also were eager to share in 
the advantage offered by the discovery of a new continent. 
They paid no heed to the division of the new lands between 
Spain and Portugal, made by the Pope when he drew the Line 
of Demarcation. A few years after the discovery of America, 
French as well as English fishing-boats were found off the coast 
of Newfoundland, catching fish for the markets of Europe. 
King Francis I. (1524) sent Verrazano, a native of Florence, 
Italy, in search of a northwest passage to Asia. He explored 
the Atlantic coast from the Carolinas to New England. Like 
the explorers of other nations, he took possession of the country 
in the name of his sovereign, and called it New France. 

Voyage of Cartier. Jacques Cartier was the next French¬ 
man to make explorations in America. He made three voyages. 
In the first (1534) he discovered a gulf 
which he named the Gulf of St. Law¬ 
rence,* and then sailed around New¬ 
foundland. Like Verrazano he pro¬ 
claimed the country New France. The 
next year, on his second voyage, he as¬ 
cended the St. Lawrence river as far 
as the present site of Montreal. On his 
third voyage he served as guide and 
pilot for Lord Roberval, who attempted 
to plant a colony in New France near 
Quebec (1541-43). Like DeSoto, in the 
south, he failed to find the fabled treasure. The winters were 
long and severe. Homesick and discouraged, the colonists re¬ 
turned to Europe. Roberval set out with a second expedition, 
1549. All must have met a tragic end, as no trace was ever 
after found of them. In fact, privation, suffering and tragedy 



Jacques Cartier. 


* He entered the gulf on St. Lawrence day, and named it after the day. 


32 


History of the United States. 


in some form or other was the common experience of the early 
discoverers and explorers. 

The Huguenots Attempt to Plant Colonies. At this 
time there were religious wars in Europe between the Protest¬ 
ants and the Catholics. Coligny was an admiral in France 
and a leader of the Huguenots, as the French Protestants were 
called. Wishing to promote the glory of France and at the 
same time provide a refuge in America for the Huguenots, he 
prepared to send out colonists to the new world. 

John Ribault. In 1562 he sent a band of colonists under 
John Ribault, who made a settlement where Port Royal, South 
Carolina, now stands. He built a fort, which he named Fort 
Carolina, in honor of King Charles IX. Ribault, who returned 
to France for more supplies and colonists, was detained for 
three years on account of the wars. The thirty men who were 
left at the fort became shiftless and indolent. They hoped to 
gain wealth from the Indians, neglected to plant crops, quarreled 
among themselves, and were in grave danger of starvation. 
Finally, in a rude ship of their own make, they put out to sea 
and were rescued by an English vessel which chanced to meet 
them. 

Laudonniere, 1564. A second expedition of Huguenots 
was sent out under Laudonniere, 1564. They landed at St. 
John’s river in Florida, and built a fort. The next year Ribault 
arrived with new settlers. At that time, they were the only 
white inhabitants of America north of the Gulf of Mexico. 
Their greatest fear was of the Indians, but soon a foe more 
deadly then the fiercest of Indian tribes was upon them, and 
wiped out the entire settlement. 

Massacre by Menendez. When the Spanish King heard 
of the French settlement, he dispatched Pedro Menendez, an 
officer of the royal navy, with a fleet to destroy it. Menendez 
landed, 1565, and built a fort which afterwards became St. 
Augustine, the first permanent settlement in what is now the 
United States. He then marched against Fort Carolina, sur¬ 
prised and murdered the garrison. Ribault, when he heard of 
the approach of the Spanish, went out with a force to meet 


Period of Exploration. 


33 


them, but a hurricane drove his ships ashore south of St. 
Augustine. Expecting fair treatment from Menendez, he sur¬ 
rendered; but the Spaniards spared not a man. Every one 
within reach, over 700 in all, was either shot or hanged. Over 
their dead bodies he placed these words: “I do this not as to 
Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans.” Although Spain and France 
were at peace, France did not even send a protest to the Spanish 
government for such inhuman conduct. Nations had not yet 
come to value the lives of individuals as they do now. 

The Massacre Avenged by De Gourges. When the nation 
failed to act, De Gourges, a French Roman Catholic, set out to 
avenge the death of his countrymen. Selling his property to 
fit out an expedition, he secretly sailed for America. He sur¬ 
prised and captured the Spanish at Fort Carolina and hanged 
his captives. These words, burned with a hot iron on a pine 
board, he placed over their heads : “ I do this not as to Spaniards, 
but as to traitors, robbers, and murderers.” Not having a 
force large enough to attack the Spanish stronghold at St. 
Augustine, he returned to France. 

La Rouche, De Mont and Champlain. La Rouche led a 
band of colonists taken from the prisons of France and made a 
settlement (1598), on Sable Island, Nova 
Scotia. After seven dreary years spent 
on the dismal island, they were mercifully 
picked up by a vessel and taken home. 

Their punishment was sufficient, so they 
were never sent back to prison. De 
Mont, aided by Samuel de Champlain, 
made a settlement at Port Royal, now 
Annapolis (1604). He received a grant 
extending from the 40th to the 46th parallel, and named the 
country Acadia. This became the center from which the 
French carried on trade, discovery, and missionary work. The 
next year, Champlain ascended the Richelieu river and dis¬ 
covered the beautiful lake which now bears his name. For 
many years he acted as Governor of Acadia. So important 
was his work that he has been frequently called the “Father of 



Samuel de Champlain. 


34 


History of the United States. 


New France.” He penetrated the interior as far as Lakes 
Ontario and Huron. 

When the Algonquian and Huron tribes of the St. Lawrence 
region were at war with the Iroquois, or Five Nations, of New 
York, the French aided the Algonquians. This alliance at the 
time was an advantage to the French, but in the end it proved 
disastrous to them. It made the Iroquois their deadly enemies 
and kept the French from extending their settlement into New 
York. Later, when the French and English were at war, the 
Five Nations became powerful allies of the English against the 
French. 

ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 

England. When America was discovered, England was a 
backward nation. She had but little commerce, and that was 
carried in foreign vessels. She did not 
fully see the great importance of making 
explorations and settlement on the 
American coast. For eighty years after 
Cabot’s voyages no attempt was made 
to extend her interests in Ameriga. 
But a new era set in about the middle 
of the sixteenth century. With the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603) 
came an increased interest in commerce 
and navigation. Discovery and inven¬ 
tion received new impulses. It was 
then that Spenser, Bacon and the im¬ 
mortal Shakespeare lived and wrote, any one of whom would 
have made a period illustrious. It was the most glorious age 
of English literature. The English navy was strengthened, and 
English vessels put to sea to explore new lands and to prey on 
Spanish commerce. The last half of the century was a period 
of growth and development, which fitted the English nation 
for the important task of colonizing America during the next 
century. 

Martin Frobisher and John Davis. Both Frobisher and 
Davis made voyages in search of a northwest passage to Asia. 



Queen Elizabeth. 



Period of Exploration. 


35 


Frobisher penetrated as far as Baffin’s Bay (1576), and re¬ 
turned with nothing but worthless stone and dirt. Davis made 
several voyages to these icy regions. Nothing permanent re¬ 
sulted from any of them except to leave the names of Frobisher 
Bay and Davis Strait on the maps. 

Voyages of Francis Drake and Circumnavigation of 
the Globe. Of all the great men that sailed the seas, none was 
braver than Sir Francis Drake, and no other so dreaded by 
Spanish sailors. The story of his deeds would fill a book. We 
can get only a glimpse of his record as he roved over the seas 
in pursuit of Spaniards, taking their gold and silver, sinking 
their ships, and plundering their towns in Mexico and Peru. 
They called him the “Dragon.” Such phrases as “fourscore 
pound weight of golde, and sixe and twentie tunne of silver,” 
copied from the story of his exploits, give an idea of the extent 
of his piracy. In one of his voyages he sailed around South 
America, and cruised along the coast of Peru until he had cap¬ 
tured a dozen Spanish vessels and robbed them of a million 
dollars’ worth of gold and silver taken from the mines of Peru. 
He then sailed north along the coast as far as Oregon in search 
of a passage-way back to Europe. He named the country 
New Albion, and passed the winter of 1579 in one of the Pacific 
harbors. Fearing that the Spanish 
ships which were on the lookout 
for him might recapture his treas¬ 
ures if he should return by the old 
route, he boldly sailed westward 
across the Pacific, and reached Eng¬ 
land in safety. He was the first 
Englishman and the second man in 
history to circumnavigate the globe 
(1577-80). 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s Col¬ 
ony, 1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
attempted to make a settlement on 
Newfoundland, 1583. The expedition met with one misfortune 
after another, and ended in failure. As Gilbert and others were 



Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 


36 


History of the United States. 


returning to England on a fragile little boat of only ten tons 
burden, they were swallowed by the waves. His last words 
were, “We are as near Heaven by sea as by land.” The voy¬ 
age is of importance because it was the first attempt by the 
English to plant a colony in America. 

Sir Walter Raleigh’s Attempt to Plant Colonies. Sir 
Walter Raleigh was a half-brother to Gilbert. He was one of 
the most brilliant men of his age, full 
of chivalrous devotion to his queen 
and country. He was one of the 
first to see that the planting of 
English colonies in America would 
not only check the increasing power 
of Spain, but would also add to the 
power and greatness of England. 
Raleigh took up the task laid down 
by Gilbert. Being a favorite of the 
queen, he obtained a liberal grant 
(1584), and sent out two ships under 
Barlow and Amidas to examine the country and report to him. 
They landed at Roanoke Island, off the coast, the present 
State of North Carolina. Upon their return they gave a glow¬ 
ing account of the country, which received the name of Vir¬ 
ginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen. In 1585 Raleigh sent out 
108 emigrants under Ralph Lane, who settled on Roanoke 
Island. The Indians became hostile, and threatened to de¬ 
stroy the colonists. When Francis Drake stopped on one of 
his homeward voyages to see how the colony was prospering, 
they returned home with him. With them they took two 
plants, the potato* and the tobacco, which have since become 
noted, one to supply the wants of man as a food, the other as 
a narcotic. In the face of discouraging circumstances Raleigh 
sent out a second colony (1587) of men and women under John 

* The common potato is an American vegetable. The Spaniards are supposed to have 
brought it to Virginia from some other part of the continent. For a long time it was but 
little liked. A farmer at Hadley, Massachusetts, who raised eight bushels in 1763, thought 
he had a large crop. Later, the potatoes were largely grown and much liked in Ireland, 
and since then have been called the Irish potato. 



Sir Walter Raleigh. 


Period of Exploration. 


37 


White as Governor. They also settled on Roanoke Island. 
Here was born Virginia Dare, the first child born to English 
parents in America. She was a grandchild to Governor White, 
who returned to England soon after her birth for supplies and 
more colonists. Spain was then planning an invasion of Eng¬ 
land. Every ship and sailor available was needed to fight 
the Spanish, and White could not return to his colony for three 
years. When he did return not a soul was found, though he 
searched in vain for the “Lost Colony.” 

In his efforts to plant a colony, Raleigh had spent over $200,- 
000, an amount which for that time would be equivalent to 
over a million dollars now. Yet after the death of Queen Eliza¬ 
beth he was imprisoned on a false charge of treason, and finally 
executed. 

The “Invincible Armada.” England now became the 
leading Protestant power. While the Protestant Netherlands 
were fighting for independence from Spain, England helped 
the Dutch and thus became a party to the war with Spain. 
The Spanish collected a great fleet of 132 vessels, called the 
Invincible Armada, expecting to land a great army on English 
soil and crush the English nation. But England collected her 
navy, which, aided by a storm, completely defeated the Spanish 
Armada in the English Channel. The Spanish lost over half 
their vessels. The effect of this victory on American history 
was great. England could plant colonies on the Atlantic coast 
without fear that Spain would destroy them. 

Other English Explorers. Bartholomew Gosnold in 1692 
shortened the route across the Atlantic. Instead of sailing 
by way of the Canaries and West Indies, he went directly 
across the ocean. He landed on a cape, which he named Cape 
Cod, and explored the coast of New England. Martin Pring 
(1603) and George Weymouth (1605) both made voyages to 
New England, traded with the Indians, and wrote glowing ac¬ 
counts of the country. 

The cost of planting colonies proving too great for individuals, 
the work was soon undertaken on a larger scale by companies 
of English merchants. 


38 History of the United States. 

DUTCH AND PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 

Henry Hudson. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the 
service of the Dutch East India Company, went in search of 
the Northwest Passage to India. Great 
masses of ice caused him to turn west¬ 
ward and then skirt southward along 
the coast of Acadia and New England 
to Cape Cod. Turning southwest he 
discovered Delaware Bay. He then 
sailed along the coast of New Jersey, 
entered New York harbor and dis¬ 
covered the Hudson river in 1609. He 
ascended that noble stream as far as 
the present site of Albany. The Dutch 
called it the North River, but the name was soon changed to 
the Hudson. (The Delaware they called the South River.) 
Upon the strength of this discovery the Dutch laid claim to the 
land from the Delaware Bay to the Connecticut river, and 
named the country New Netherland. 

Portuguese. In addition to the Portuguese already referred 
to, there were others who made explorations. Cabral, while 
on a voyage to India, reached the coast of Brazil, 1500, and 
claimed the country for his King as being east of the Line of 
Demarcation. The same year Gaspar Cortereal sailed along 
the coast of North America, skirting the shores of Nova Scotia 
and Labrador. 

Rule to Make Claims to Territory Good. We have seen 
that five nations had made discoveries and explorations in 
America up to the year 1609. These were Spain, France, Eng¬ 
land, Portugal, and Holland. At a later date Sweden and 
Russia gained a foothold. With so many nations anxious to 
claim the new territory, much confusion and trouble was bound 
to follow. The Indians were in possession of America, but 
the European nations claimed that they had a right to all new 
territory which they discovered and which' was not already 
occupied by Christian nations. Two things were necessary to 
make good a claim: The nation must he the first to discover 



Henry Hudson. 


Period of Exploration. 


39 


the country, and must settle it within a reasonable time. There 
was no one to enforce this “Law of Nations” but the nation it¬ 
self, and conflicting claims were sometimes settled by war. 

Results of a Century of Discovery and Exploration. By 
the year 1609, the French had sailed along the Atlantic coast 
from Carolina to Newfoundland. They had discovered and 
named the gulf and river St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain, 
and explored much of the country bordering these bodies of 
water. They had made a settlement in Florida, which was de¬ 
stroyed by the Spaniards. 

The English had made discoveries and explorations from 
Nova Scotia to Florida, and attempted to plant colonies in 
the regions they had explored; but it is a striking fact that 
when the sixteenth century closed (more than a hundred years 
after the discovery of America), not an English or a French 
settler remained alive in America, though many rested in ob¬ 
scure graves. 

The Dutch had discovered the Hudson river and Delaware 
Bay, and had explored the New England coast. 

The Spaniards had thus far accomplished most. They had 
explored a large part of the region they called Florida, and had 
planted two permanent settlements within the present limits 
of the United States,—one at St. Augustine, the other at Santa 
Fe. They had conquered Mexico and Peru, and ruled over 
the West Indies. It then seemed that Spain would become 
supreme in America. 

Claims to Territory, 1609. The Spaniards, 1609, claimed 
not only the territory which they had discovered, but all the 
country west of the Line of Demarcation. 

The English claimed the land from Nova Scotia to Florida, 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 

The Dutch claimed the territory between the Connecticut 
and the Delaware rivers. 

The French claimed New France, or the region drained by 
the St. Lawrence. 

There were no definite limits to any territories at that time. 
The vast interior region was unexplored. The nations set 


40 


History of the United States. 


at work to strengthen their claims by sending out new colonists. 
This period is called the period of “ Settlement and Develop¬ 
ment of the Colonies.” 

Before studying it we must learn something of the country 
and of the Indians, who were the greatest obstacle in the way 
of settlement. 

Suggestions for Review. 

Where were the Spanish settlements first made? Why? How did 
Florida come to be discovered and named? Tell of Balboa and Panama, 
of the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, of the great voyage of Magellan. 
What did it prove? What was the object of the DeNarvaez expeditions? 
Tell of the explorations of DeSoto. What was the extent of Spanish 
Florida? When and by whom was St. Augustine founded? What is the 
city like now? 

In what part of the New World did the French first make discoveries 
and explorations? What led them so far north? Who gave the name 
New France to this country? Tell of the French colony in Spanish 
Florida. Who founded Port Royal, Nova Scotia? Who explored the St* 
Lawrence valley? Who founded Quebec? Tell of the explorations of 
Champlain, and his relations with the Indians. 

Why was England slow in making settlements in America? What 
changes in England fitted her for planting colonies? Where did the Cabots 
discover land? What voyage was made by Sir Francis Drake? Who was 
Queen of England at this time? Tell about the relations of England and 
Spain. Who was Sir Humphrey Gilbert? Sir Walter Raleigh? What 
colony did he found? Tell of tobacco and the potato. In what way was 
the defeat of the Spanish Armada a benefit to America? Who were Gos- 
nold and Pring? 

What led the Dutch to take part in the opening of the New World? 
What was the Dutch East India Company? What parts of North America 
did Henry Hudson discover? What five nations took part in explorations 
in America? What territory did each of the five nations claim? What 
two things were necessary to make good a claim for territory? 

On a map locate the countries explored. 

Make separate tables for the chief Spanish, French, English and Portu¬ 
guese explorers, following the plan given below: 

SPANISH EXPLORERS* AND DISCOVERERS. 


Person 


Time 


Place and Remarks 


Columbus 


1492 


San Salvador, Cuba, and Hayti. 











CHAPTER III. 

THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIANS. 

THE CONTINENT. 

Mountain and River Systems of North America. In 

the western part of North America is a great mountain system, 
extending parallel to the coast from Alaska to the Isthmus of 
Panama. Beyond the crest of these mountains is the great 
Pacific slope with its peaks and crags, its broken and barren 
wastes alternating with beautiful fertile valleys, and garden 
and orchard tracts of unusual richness. 

In the eastern part of the continent is another mountain 
system, the Appalachian, extending parallel with the coast. 
To the east of its crest is the Atlantic slope with its many 
mountain streams carrying an abundant supply of water, which, 
together with its mineral deposits and fertile soil, have made it 
the land of varied industries,—agriculture, mining, manufactur¬ 
ing, commerce. Here are the historic valleys where the English 
and Dutch and Swedes began those settlements which became 
the thirteen English colonies. Between the two mountain 
systems is the Great Central Plain, whose vast areas of fertile 
lands forming the world’s greatest granary are traversed by a 
great network of streams, from mountain crest to mountain 
crest. These find outlet: 1st, through the rivers and lakes of 
the north into the Arctic ocean; 2nd, through the Great Lakes 
and the St. Lawrence river into the Atlantic; and 3rd, through 
the Mississippi and other streams into the Gulf of Mexico. A 
careful study of the mountain ranges and river systems of 
North America will reveal many points of interest, too numerous 
even to mention here, but it should be constantly remembered 
that the mountains, plains, forests, rivers and climate have an 
important bearing on the history of the nation. 

The Country. The country was a great wilderness from 

41 


42 


History of the United States. 


the Atlantic to beyond the Mississippi, and from the Gulf to the 
Great Lakes. Here and there were open fields where the 
Indians planted tobacco or corn. Fowl, fish and game were 
plentiful, especially buffalo, deer, wild turkeys and wild pigeons. 
Beyond the wilderness were the prairies and beyond the prairies 
were the desert regions. There were no cities or towns, houses 
or barns, roads or railroads. The works of man were nowhere 
to be seen. Nature was supreme. There were narrow trails 
made by Indians or buffaloes. Some of these later became 
routes for wagon-roads or railroads. The numerous rivers 
that wind through mountain and plain then floated the birch 
canoe or Indian dugout, just as they today form the highways 
for the white man’s boats. 

That part of America which became the United States had a 
climate similar to that of Europe. Its soil was fertile, and 
would produce the same trees, fruits, plants and crops as the 
soil of Europe, and in addition it would yield corn, cotton, rice, 
and sugar-cane. This was indeed an inviting field for sturdy, 
thrifty Europeans. 

INDIANS. 

The Indians. At the time of the discovery of America, 
Indians were found in all parts of the country. The Spaniards 
found them in South America and Mexico. DeSoto found 
them in Florida and Coronado met them in the Southwest. 
The English found them all along the Atlantic coast, and 
Champlain and Cartier met them in Canada. Wherever the 
white man went he had to guard himself against the attacks 
of the “Red men of the forests,” as the Indians were called. 
They were not always found in great numbers, but they were 
likely to be found at any time or place. The number then 
in America is not known; but it has been estimated at about 
180,000 east of the Mississippi river and at 300,000 in the 
whole of North America. The Indian population today is 
greater than it is supposed to have been over four centuries 
ago. The government reports of 1909 place the number in 
the United States alone at 300,121. 


The Continent and the Indians. 


43 


Personal Appearance. 
erect, well-built, and of a 
copper color. They had 
high cheek-bones, small, 
black and deep-set eyes, and 
Roman noses. Their Lair 
was coarse, black, and 
straight, and the hands of 
both men and women were 
small. The full-blood In¬ 
dian of today is quite sim¬ 
ilar in appearance to those 
of centuries ago. 

Mode of Life. But 
few of them had fixed dwell¬ 
ing-places. The woods 
were their home. Rude huts 
or tents, called wigwams, 
gave them shelter from the 
storm and cold. These were 
generally made by fastening 
sticks together at the top 
and spreading them out be¬ 
low, in the form of a cone, 
and covering them with 
skins, bark, or mats. Sometimes 
house with twenty or thirty 
stalls and with a door at 
each end. Each stall shel¬ 
tered a family. The In¬ 
dians were often grouped 
in villages surrounded by 
stockades made of posts, 
to protect them from the 
enemy. The Pueblos were 
semi-civilized, and lived in 
permanent villages. The 


The Indians as a race were tall, 



Rushing Bear, a Typical Indian Chief. 


the structure was a long 



Indian Wigwam. 




44 History of the United States. 

houses were made of sun-dried brick or stone. Many of these 
are now in ruins, but some are still occupied. The Indian 
lived by hunting and fishing, and sometimes he engaged in 
crude agriculture, raising corn, tobacco, pumpkins, and beans. 
The Indian man did the hunting, fishing, and fighting, and 
his squaw did the work. She raised the crops, built the wig¬ 
wams, cured the skins, wove the mats, cooked the meats, and 
cared for the papooses. 

The Indian taught the white man the value of corn, and 
introduced to him the use of tobacco. 

Weapons, Dress, and Property. The Indian’s weapons 
were bows and arrows, tomahawks, war-clubs, and axes made 

of stones, shaped like a 
hammer or ax and fast¬ 
ened to a wooden handle. 
The arrows were tipped 
with sharp-edged flint. 
The Indian had no ani¬ 
mals except the dog. 
The horse, which became 
of great use to him in 
later times, was brought 
from Europe. The In¬ 
dian’s dress was very 
scant. In summer it was 
almost nothing. In win¬ 
ter it consisted chiefly 
of deerskins and buffalo- 
hides. On his feet he 
wore moccasins, a kind 
of shoes made of buck¬ 
skin, which were ideal 
footwear for hunting, as 
they were soft, durable, 
and noiseless. He wore 
a head-dress made of 
feathers, and ornamented himself with paint, beads, and with 



1. Quiver and Bow-case. 2. Flint-tipped 
Arrow. 3. Stone Axe. 4. War-club (stone 
head, rawhide handle). 5. Flint-blade Knife. 
7. Flint-headed Spear. 7. Hoe (made of a 
conch-shell.) 8. Sling, for carrying quiver and 
bow-case. 








The Continent and the Indians. 


45 


teeth of animals. The land was of value to him only as a hunt¬ 
ing-ground. As game became scarce in one place he moved to 
another. He was master of lake and stream, and glided with 
ease over the waterways in his canoes. He resented the coming 
of the white man, for he knew that it meant the loss of his hunt¬ 
ing-grounds. 



Seneca Long House. 


Characteristics. The prairie and forest were his home. 
Nature was his school. He studied it as a book. He could 
track the wild animal to its den, imitate the sound of bird and 
beast, and follow trails no white man could see. His hearing 
was keen. He was a faithful friend but a cruel enemy. He 
never forgave a wrong. He talked little, seldom laughed and 
rarely cried. 

His favorite method of fighting was to lie in ambush or steal 
up behind the enemy, and strike him down with tomahawk, and 
scalp him. In battle he asked no quarter and gave none. 
When his fighting blood was stirred he was'fierce and cruel. 
Not satisfied merely to kill his victims, he sometimes would 
torture them in the most inhuman manner, and dance for joy 
as he watched their agonies. 

Religion. The Indian’s idea of religion was not well de¬ 
fined. He worshipped nature around him. He saw his God 
in sun, moon, stars, in the silent lake and flowing river. For 
him birds, beasts and reptiles had spirits. He worshipped the 










46 


History of the United States. 


evil spirits as well as the good ones, believing that they would 
harm him if he should neglect them. His heaven was the 
“Happy Hunting Ground” to which with his bow and arrow he 
expected to go after death, and live forever. 

Government and Families. A clan was made up of those 
supposed to be descendants of the same female ancestor. Sev¬ 
eral clans speaking the same language made up an Indian tribe. 
Every clan elected its own “Sachem” or ruler. A council made 
up of Sachems ruled the tribe. Sometimes tribes elected a 
head war-chief. All matters of importance were brought be¬ 
fore the council of Sachems. 

The Indians of the United States are divided into great 
families composed of tribes speaking a related language. A 
number of tribes constitute a family, the most important of 
which are the Algonquian, Iroquoian, Muskhogean, Siouan, 
Caddoan, and Shoshoean.* 

The Algonquian family was the largest. It was spread over a great 
area, extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains. The 
English met first the tribes of this family, the Delawares, Shawnees, Pow- 
hattans, Pequots, Massachusetts, and Narragansetts. The O jib ways, 
Arapahoes and Cheyennes also belong to this family. 

The Iroquoian family was found in northern New York, westward along 
the Great Lakes, and in the Carolinas and other parts of the South. The 
tribes of this family were very warlike and subdued many Algonquian 
tribes. The Mohawks, Senecas, Cayugas, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cherokees 
and Wyandots belong to this family. 

The Muskohegean family lived in the southern States east of the Mis¬ 
sissippi. The Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Seminoles belong to 
this family. 

The Siouan family lived principally west of the Mississippi on the Great 
Plains, but some of the tribes were found in Virginia and the Carolinas. 
The Sioux, Osages, Kansas, Catawbas, Quapaws, Otoes, Omahas, Crows, 
Blackfeet, Yanktons, Winnebagos and Tetons belong to this family. 

The Caddoan family lived in Texas, and was scattered north to the 
valley of the Platte river. The Pawnees, Caddos and Ariccarees belong 
to this family. 

The Shoshonean family occupied the great interior basin of the United 

* The spelling of these family names corresponds to that used by the Bureau of Eth¬ 
nology. Observe that Siouan is the name of the family and that Sioux is the name of a 
tribe in this family. 


The Continent and the Indians 


47 

































48 


History of the United States. 

States—Utah, Nevada, and parts of Colorado, Texas, and other states. 
The Shoshones, Bannocks, Utes and Comanches belong to this family. 

There are many small linguistic families on the Pacific coast. The 
Athapascan family was along the Rio Grande river, and in New Mexico 
and Arizona west of that river. 

Present Homes of Indians.* Of the total number of In¬ 
dians now in the United States considerably more than one- 
third live in the state of Oklahoma. Other states having a 
large Indian population are Arizona, South Dakota, California, 
New Mexico, Wisconsin, Montana, Minnesota, and Washington. 

The present policy of the government is to educate the In¬ 
dians by bringing them in contact with our institutions and 
mode of life, and finally to absorb them into our civilization. 
Already a large number have been made citizensf and are en¬ 
titled to all the rights guaranteed under the Constitution to 
citizens. ' 

Suggestions for Review. 

Describe the mountain and river systems of North America. What 
wild game was found there? How many Indians were there in North 
America when America was discovered? Now? Which were partly 
civilized? Describe the personal appearance of the Indian. What kind 
of houses did the Indians build? Describe their mode of life, their weapons, 
tools, and mode of warfare. What was their religion? Tell of their 
government, of the clan, tribe, and family. What progress have the 
Indians made toward civilization? What is the present policy of the 
government toward them? Where are they now found? 


* By the government report for the year 1909, the Indian population was as follows: 
Oklahoma, 117,370; Arizona, 37,209; South Dakota, 20,171; California, 19,778; New 
Mexico, 18,727; Wisconsin, 11,020; Montana 10,426; Minnesota, 10,008; Washington, 
8,484; and small numbers in other states. 

f Indians until recent years had always been excluded from citizenship; but in 1887 
Congress passed a law which provides that any Indian may become a citizen either by 
taking up his land allotment from the government or by taking up his residence apart from 
any tribe of Indians and adopting the habits of civilized life. They are then entitled to 
all the rights, privileges and immunities of citizens. 


CHAPTER IV. 

THE PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT. 


America No Place for the Indolent and Faint-Hearted. 

The eyes of the Old World were now turned to America. Na¬ 
tions were eager to make settlements to enforce their claims to 
territory. Broad areas of fertile land needed thrifty, strong 
hands to hew down- the forests and till the soil. What nations 
would succeed? What people would endure? Only those who 
could meet the conditions. America in 1600 was no place for 
idlers, cowards, or dreamers. Fields had to be cleared, houses 
erected, roads opened, crops cultivated, and all these protected. 
There was nothing to invite ease and comfort. Bears, wolves 
and panthers were a menace to man and a danger to his live¬ 
stock, and the fierce Indian was a constant threat to his life. 
It is apparent that only those who were willing to work and 
face hardships and dangers could hope to succeed on the shores 
of America. Both classes, the idle and the industrious, came. 
The first suffered the pangs of hunger, disease, and death; 
the latter struggled through hardships and afflictions to become 
the permanent home-builders of the New World. The record 
of their achievements makes the seventeenth century one of 
great interest to the student of American history. During 
this time, twelve of the thirteen colonies were founded: Vir¬ 
ginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hamp¬ 
shire, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, New 
Jersey, North Carolina, and South Carolina. The settlement 
of Georgia, the last of the thirteen colonies, came a little later. 

Conditions in England. Conditions in England were at 
this time favorable for making settlements in new countries. 
English merchants planned to extend their trade. Many men 
who had been in the army were idle. Changed methods in 
agriculture, especially the increase in sheep-raising, which re- 

49 


50 


History of the United States. 



quired fewer men than the cultivation of crops, had thrown 
many out of employment. Lack of 
work made hard times. Eager to 
extend his'domain and spread the 
Christian religion, King James I. 
granted a charter, 1606, to the Vir¬ 
ginia Company. This company 
was organized for trade and settle¬ 
ment in America, and was divided 
into two branches, one known 
as the London Company and the 
James i., king of England, other the Plymouth Company. 


SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 

The London and Plymouth Companies. The London 

Company was composed of “knights, merchants, and noble¬ 
men’’ in and around London. To them the King gave the 
territory between the 34th and 41st parallels of north latitude.' 
The Plymouth Company, composed of “knights, merchants, 
and noblemen” from the town of Plymouth, received the terri¬ 
tory between the 38th and 45th parallels. Thus the grants 
overlapped three degrees in width (from the 38th to the 41 at 
degree), which was left open to settlers sent out by either 
of the companies. This was done to encourage the companies 
to act promptly, as neither company could make a settlement 
within a hundred miles of any settlement already made by the 
other company. The first to act would gain control of most of 
the territory. Both grants extended inland from the sea 100 
miles. 

Important Provisions. 1 . To the colonists and their chil¬ 
dren the King promised all the rights of residents of England. 
It will be well to bear this in mind, for the disregard of it was a 
great cause of the Revolutionary War. 

2. The London colony was to be ruled by a council in Vir¬ 
ginia, appointed by a council in England, which in turn was 
appointed by the King. The settlers were to have no part in 
their own government. 


The Period of Settlement. 51 

3. One-fifth of all gold and silver found was to go into the 
King’s treasury. 



In addition to these clauses in the charter, a long list of in¬ 
structions was given to the colonists by the King and the Lon¬ 
don Company. Their religion should be that of the Church of 
England. For the first five years all products of labor should 
be placed in a common storehouse, from which each one could 
draw what he needed. This encouraged the lazy, but it dis¬ 
couraged the industrious to know that the fruits of their labor 
were to be consumed by idlers. In fact, this provision almost 
ruined the colony. 









52 History of the United States. 

Settlement bf Jamestown, 1607. The London Company 
was the first to act. On New Year’s Day, 1607, under com¬ 
mand of Captain Newport, it 
sent 105 persons in three ships 
to plant a colony within its 
grant. The colonists sailed up 
Chesapeake Bay and entered 
a river which they called the 
James, in honor of the King. 
About thirty miles from the 
mouth of the river they landed 
in May, 1607, and began the 
first permanent English set¬ 
tlement in America. They 
built a rude fort, mounted 
some cannon to protect them¬ 
selves against the Indians and 
Spaniards and named the place 
Jamestown, in honor of King 
James. For a church they 
stretched a canvas between 
trees, and beneath it, with logs 
for benches, they held their 
religious services. 

Character of the Colonists. The colonists were not fitted . 
for their tasks. Over half of them were “ gentlemen ” not accus¬ 
tomed to work. The rest were mechanics and tradesmen. 
All were men who came, not to make homes, but to find gold, 
gain wealth, and return to England. They planted no seed 
and reaped no crops. Their provisions ran short. They slept 
on the bare ground and drank unwholesome water. The lovr, 
marshy soil bred fever and other diseases. By fall one-half their 
number were dead, among them Bartholomew Gosnold. Those 
who were well were kept busy caring for the sick. Finally, 
after health was restored, they set to work building huts. 
Captain Newport returned to England. Then the colonists 









The Period of Settlement. 53 

who had raised no crops were confronted with the danger of 
starvation. 

John Smith. After the colony had reached this deplorable 
state Captain John Smith took charge and managed its affairs. 
Before coming to America he had a 
variety of thrilling experiences in 
Europe, sometimes barely escaping 
death. He was wise, resourceful, 
energetic, and ruled with great vigor. 

He himself worked, and taught others 
to work. He made a rule that no one 
should eat who did not work. There 
was no place for drones. Soon he 
had the colonists erecting cabins, dig¬ 
ging the soil, and chopping wood. 

Probably his greatest service was in 
cultivating the friendship of the In¬ 
dians, and in gathering from them a 
supply of corn to tide the colonists 
over the winter. Had it not been for the wisdom and energy 
of Captain Smith, they probably would have perished. He ex¬ 
plored the rivers, bays, and surrounding country. While on 
one Of these trips he was captured by Indians and taken to their 
chief, Powhatan. Smith relates—though the story is dis¬ 
credited by many historians—that he was condemned to die. 
His hands and feet were tied, his head laid upon a stone, and a 
powerful Indian stood ready with uplifted club to strike the 
fatal blow, when Pocahontas,* the beautiful daughter of Pow¬ 
hatan, threw herself upon him and pleaded for his life. The 
sturdy old chief yielded, and the life of Smith was saved. 
Whether this be fact or fancy, it is true that Smith had many 
thrilling experiences and miraculous escapes, and that he was 
the savior of the Jamestown colony. 

The Second Charter, 1609. In 1609 the King gave a sec- 

* Pocahontas was some years later married to John Rolfe. The marriage helped to 
preserve the peace between the Indians and colonists. John Randolph, once a leader in 
the House of Representatives, was a descendant of Pocahontas and Rolfe. 





54 


History of the United States. 


ond charter to the London Company. The council in Vir¬ 
ginia was displaced by the appointment of a governor. The 
extent of the grant was changed. Under the new charter the 
company received a tract of land extending from 200 miles 
north to 200 miles south of Old Point Comfort, from the At¬ 
lantic to the Pacific, “west and northwest.” Virginia afterwards 
tried to interpret the phrase “ west and northwest ” to mean that 
the northern boundary of Virginia extended directly northwest 
from the coast instead of due west. In 1612 the council in 
England was abolished and the management placed in the 
hands of the stockholders. 

Starving-Time, 1609-10. New settlers continued to come 
until the colony numbered 500. They were a shiftless, worth¬ 
less set, and became a burden instead of a help. Lord Dela¬ 
ware, the newly appointed Governor, had not yet arrived; so 
Smith continued to rule until he was seriously wounded by an 
explosion of powder, which caused him to return to England 
for treatment. The colonists again became idle and disorderly, 
and the Indians became sullen, refusing to furnish any more 
food. The want of provisions made the winter a trying one. 
By spring the colony was reduced from 500 to 60. The winter 
was long known as the Starving-Time. Lord Delaware ar¬ 
rived in June with new settlers, and a supply of food, just as 
the survivors were about to sail for England. On account of 
ill-health Delaware returned to England and left Sir Thomas 
Dale in charge of the colony. Dale abolished the common store¬ 
house and gave to each man a tract of land from which he could 
reap the product of his own labor. The-idler could no longer 
rely and impose on the man of industry as by the common store¬ 
house plan. 

The First Representative Assembly, 1619. A better class 
of settlers began to come, men who came to till the soil and 
build homes. By 1619 there were 4,000 persons living in 
eleven settlements called “plantations,” but immigration al¬ 
most stopped under the cruel and selfish rule of Samuel Argali 
(1616-1619). Then a great change took place. Argali was 
removed and Yeardley, a new governor, was sent over with 


The Period of Settlement. 


55 


limited powers. Each plantation was allowed to elect two 
delegates to a legislative assembly, called the House of Bur¬ 
gesses, which met for the first time in a church in Jamestown, 
July 30, 1619. This was the first legislative assembly ever 
held by white men in America, and it gave the people their first 
taste of that promise made in the charter, granting them the 
full rights of Englishmen. Two years later (1621) these rights 
were embodied in writing. The new government consisted of 
a governor, a council, and an assembly chosen by the people. 
This date marks the beginning of the real political life of the 
colony, which soon launched into a period of growth and pros¬ 
perity. 

Beginning of Family Life, 1619. The early colonists were 
all men. Faithful mothers and happy children were needed 
to establish families and to build homes. To secure this, the 
London Company in 1619 sent over a hundred good women as 
wives for the planters. They met a most cordial welcome, and 
each was soon married to a settler, who paid from 100 pounds 
to 150 pounds of tobacco for his wife. The result was most 
pleasing. More women came. Domestic ties were formed. 
The colonists became in reality Virginians. Three great in¬ 
stitutions were now well planted: the family, the church, and 
the government. The school was still wanting. 

Tobacco the Main Source of Wealth. The climate and 
soil of Virginia were especially well suited for the cultivation 
of tobacco. The “ smoking habit ” had spread over England, 
Spain and France, making a great demand for that article, 
which raised the price, making tobacco-raising very profitable. 
Many farmers left England to engage in the new industry in 
the new country. * 

Need of Labor. — “Indentured -Servants.” —The culti¬ 
vation of tobacco on a large scale made a demand for labor. 
Europe was ready to supply this demand. Thousands of 
laborers, too poor to pay for their passage to the New World, 
contracted with masters of ships to sell themselves as servants 
for a series of years in exchange for the passage-money, ad¬ 
vanced by the ship-owners. Most of these were sold at the 


56 


History of the United States. 


wharf when the ships arrived. They were called “ indentured 
servants,” and among them were many poor boys and girls, 
who were bound to serve until they became of age. In case 
no buyers came to the ship, the passengers were turned over 
to agents, who chained them together and peddled them through 
the towns. Another class of “indentured servants” was made 
up of criminals, brought from England, and sold to the colonists 
for a term of years. The demand for labor became.so great that 
the sale of these poor persons became a regular and profitable 
business, and when volunteers could not be secured kidnappers 
were employed by ship-owners to steal persons. “Children 
and adults alike were lured or forced upon vessels in the har¬ 
bor,” carried to America and sold as servants. 

Negro Slavery.* But a different kind of service was begun 
in 1619, a year already noted for the introduction of women 
and representative government in Virginia. A Dutch vessel 
in August sold twenty African negroes to planters. This was 
the beginning of negro slavery in America. Its growth was 
at first slow, but when it was discovered that the negro’s hands 
could supply a cheap and profitable labor for the plantations, 
negro slavery made a rapid growth in the South. Negroes 
were procured in Africa and sold as slaves in America. Dutch 
and New England traders found a profitable business in cap¬ 
turing negroes in Africa for the American market. 

Indian Wars, 1622 and 1644. While Powhatan was chief, 
the Indians were peaceful and the settlers dwelt in security. 
After his death his brother became chief, and planned to de¬ 
stroy the Jamestown settlements. On March 22, 1622, while 
many Indians were visiting among the colonists, they, at a 
fixed time, suddenly began murdering their unsuspecting hosts. 
Men, women and children were slain in the outlying districts. 
Jamestown and surrounding territory, being forewarned the 
day before by a friendly Indian, were prepared for the attack. 
In the war which followed, the Indians were so severely pun¬ 
ished that they made but little trouble for twenty-two years. 

* John Hawkins, an Englishman, as early in 1560, had sold slaves to the Spanish in 
the West Indies. 


The Period of Settlement. 


57 


In 1644 they again took the war-path, and killed 500 colonists. 
In the end they were defeated and driven from the settled 
regions. 

A Royal Province. King James did not like the idea of 
giving the people a voice in their government. He applied 
to the courts, which were under his control, to have the charter 
to the Virginia Company annulled on the charge that the colony 
was mismanaged and that the company could not give proper 
protection against the Indians. The court ruled in the King’s 
favor, and Virginia became a royal province, 1624. As a royal 
province the King appointed the governor and council, but the 
people still elected their assembly. 

To the Virginia Company is due the credit of planting the 
first strong English colony in America, and with it the begin¬ 
nings of self-government. 

How Events in England Affected the Colonists. We are 

now studying about the English colonies, and should bear in 
mind that conditions in England had much to do with the 
character and the number of settlers who came to America. 
In those days the kings were tyrannical.* They believed that 
all right to rule was vested in them, and that the people should 
have no freedom in religion and no part in law-making; that 
kings had the divine right to rule over church and state. 

Rule of Charles I. of England, (1625-1649.) At this 
time there was a bitter struggle between King Charles and 
Parliament. Charles, believing in the divine right of kings, 
wished to have absolute power to rule over the people as he 
pleased. He imposed taxes without their consent and severely 
punished those who did not worship according to the forms 
of the Church of England. Puritans and Catholics suffered 
from the effects of his cruel laws. From 1629 to 1640 Charles 
ruled without a parliament. During that time thousands of 
Puritans left their homes in England to come 'to America. 

But the quarrel between the King and his people went on, 

% 

* The rulers of England during the seventeenth century were : James I., (1603-1625); 
Charles I., (1625-1649); the Cromwells, (1649-1660); Charles II., (1660-1685); James 
II., (1685-1688); William III. and Mary, (1688-1702). 


58 


History of the United States. 


ending finally in a great civil war and the Puritan Revolution. 
The armies of the King were defeated, the House of Lords 
abolished, and the King executed, 1649. 

Rule of Cromwell. After the death of Charles I., England 
was ruled by a council of state and the House of Commons. 

Oliver Cromwell at the head of the army 
was the controlling character. In 1652 
he was made Lord Protector of the Com¬ 
monwealth of England, and ruled until 
his death (1658). After the brief rule of 
his son Richard, government by Kings, 
Lords and Commons was restored, 1660. 
Charles Stuart, son of Charles I., then 
became King under the name of Charles 
II. He was succeeded by his brother, 
James II., who was so despotic that the 
Oliver Cromwell. people rose in arms and drove him out 
of England. 

The Cavaliers Flocked to Virginia. During the Puritan 
rule of Cromwell, the population of Virginia increased rapidly. 
Many of those who favored Charles I. were forced to leave 
England. They included many aristocrats, called Cavaliers, 
and came to Virginia as the most sympathetic colony. They 
were educated and refined. Among them were the families 
of Randolph, Madison, Monroe, Marshall, Washington, and 
many others whose names became famous in American his¬ 
tory. 

The arrival of the Cavaliers had an important bearing on the 
later history of the colony. From them descended some of the 
great soldiers and statesmen of the Revolutionary period. 
They received a kindly welcome in Virginia, which was loyal 
to the King. The population increased from a few thousand 
in 1650 to 38,000 in 1670. 

Period of Oppression. One of these aristocrats was Sir 
William Berkeley, twicfc governor of Virginia. His first term 
began in 1644 and ended when Cromwell came into power. 
Charles II. again sent him to rule over Virginia, in 1660. He 



The Period of Settlement. 


59 


was arbitrary by nature and habit, had little faith in the 
common people, and believed they should not be educated. 
When speaking of Virginia, he once said (1671): “I thank 
God there are no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall 
not have them these hundred years.” Under his rule heavy 
taxes were laid, money squandered, oppressive church laws 
passed, and no election of the House of Burgesses was held for 
sixteen years. 

Land Grants to Lords Culpeper and Arlington. To 

add to these troubles the King gave all Virginia to two of his 
favorites—Lord Culpeper and Lord Arlington—for a term of 
thirty-one years. As this grant made the land titles uncertain, 
the colonists bechme very indignant. 

The Navigation Acts. While the English were having 
civil war tho Dutch were busy building up a great commerce. 
When the war closed they controlled not only their own trade, 
but most of the commerce of England. With the hope of re¬ 
gaining this trade, Parliament in 1651 passed the first of a 
series of acts protecting English colonial trade by excluding 
other nations from sharing in these privileges. The act of 
1651, though aimed directly at the Dutch, applied to all na¬ 
tions. 

After this time many laws, all directed toward holding the 
colonial commerce in her own hands, were passed by England. 
Notable among these were the acts of 1660, 1672, and 1696. 
Under the last, the Board of Trade and Plantations, commonly 
called the Lords of Trade, with duties for supervising the trade 
and commerce of the colonies, was instituted. As a result of 
these and other acts the following restrictions were placed on 
colonial commerce: 

1. Only English and colonial ships could carry on colonial 
trade. 

2. The most important products of the colonies could be 
carried only to England. 

3. Foreign goods could be brought to the colonies only from 
English ports, except under heavy duty. 

4. Trade was restricted between the colonies. This gave 


60 


History of the United States. 


English merchants a monoply, so the colonists received less 
for what they had to sell and were required to pay more for 
what they wished to buy. The loss to the colonists was bal¬ 
anced by the profits to the English. These acts bore heavily 
on the colonists, and became one of the causes of the Revolu¬ 
tionary War. 

Indian Troubles and Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676. To add 

to these troubles the Indians went on the war-path, murdering 
many of the outlying settlers. Governor Berkeley, who was 
doing a profitable fur trade with the Indians, refused to protect 
the settlers. They raised an army under the leadership of 
Nathaniel Bacon, a rich young man of gentle birth. In defiance 
of the governor, they marched against the Indians and punished 
them severely. This brought on a quarrel between the fol¬ 
lowers of Berkeley and Bacon. Berkeley and his army were 
defeated and driven on board a ship. Jamestown was burned 
by the followers of Bacon, and Williamsburg was made the 
seat of government. At this juncture Bacon died. His fol¬ 
lowers, lacking a leader, dispersed to their homes. Berkeley 
then took terrible revenge. He put twenty of Bacon’s fol¬ 
lowers to death, threw some into prison, and seized the prop¬ 
erty of others. His severity led King Charles II. to say, “The 
old fool has taken more lives in that naked country than I 
did for the death of my father.” He removed Berkeley from 
office; so the rebellion had two effects—Virginia was rid of a 
bad governor, and the Indians were forced to make peace. 

Jamestown was rebuilt, but later burned by accident. Noth¬ 
ing now remains of it but the ruined tower of the old church. 

Suggestions for Review. 

What class of people did America invite? What were the conditions 
in England? What two companies received charters in 1606? What 
territory was given to each? How far inland? What important priv¬ 
ileges did the King grant to the colonists? What church was established 
in the London Company Grant? Tell about Jamestown. What was the 
character of the settlers? What part did John Smith take in helping the 
colony? Who was Pocahontas? What changes were made by the charter 
of 1609? Tell about the starving-time. What right was granted to the 


The Period of Settlement. 


61 


colonists in 1609? Tell of the House of Burgesses. How were women in¬ 
troduced into Jamestown? What was the main source of wealth of the 
colony? Why? What was an “indentured servant”? Tell about negro 
slavery. How did the civil war in England affect the growth of Virginia? 
Who were the Cavaliers? What effect did their coming have upon the 
life of the colony? What were the Navigation Acts? Why were they 
passed? What was the result of the passage of these Acts? 

Tell something about each of the following named persons, places, and 
dates: John Smith, Powhatan, Pocahontas, Charles I., Oliver Cromwell, 
Nathaniel Bacon; Jamestown; 1606, 1607, 1619, 1622, 1624, 1651, 1676. 

Write an outline for the chapter. 


CHAPTER V. 

PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT. 

SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

The Council for New England.—Formed 1620. While 

the London Company was planting a colony at Jamestown, the 
Plymouth Company, which was formed at the same time, had 
failed to accomplish anything permanent. In 1620 the latter 
company, under the name of the Council for New England, re¬ 
ceived a new grant, which inqluded all the vast territory be¬ 
tween the 40th and 48th degrees of latitude, extending from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific. (See map, p. 51.) This new com¬ 
pany, in its efforts to found colonies, made many land grants, 
but before any settlements were made under its authority, 
a body of Pilgrims, wandering from their homes in Europe, 
made the first settlement within the territory. % 

Puritans, Separatists, and Pilgrims. During the reign 
of King Henry VIII. (1509-1547), a large portion of the people, 
following the .example of their king, separated from the Church 
of Rome and formed the Church of England. As time passed 
many persons believed that the Church of England did not go 
far enough. They objected to so much form and ceremony, and 
wished, as they said, to purify the church and have a simpler 
form of worship. Hence they were named Puritans. Most 
of them had no thought of leaving the church to form a new 
sect. But in 1580 a minister named Robert Browne separated 
from the Established Church, and soon had quite a following 
of persons who claimed the right to worship as they pleased. 
They were called Separatists. At that time hardly a nation 
in the world permitted free religious worship. To allow such 
a thing, it was believed, would be a sure and quick way to 
bring the world to an evil end. So the monarchs, in succession— 

62 


The Period of Settlement. 


63 


Elizabeth, James, Charles—attempted to make all persons con¬ 
form to the Church of England. The spirit of the times was 
well expressed by King James I. when he said: “I shall make 
them conform themselves or I will harrie them out of the land 
or do worse.” So he did. Separatists and Puritans were fined, 
imprisoned, and some hanged ; others fled from this persecution 
to seek homes in distant lands. 

The Pilgrims. In 1608 a band of Separatists fled with their 
pastor, John Robinson, from Scrooby, England, and settled 
at Leyden, Holland, where they could have freedom of worship. 
Here they were haunted by visions of other evils. They were 
treated well, but they saw that by association and marriage 
of their children with the Dutch, they would finally lose their 
nationality. Their descendants would cease to be Englishmen 
and become Dutchmen. Accordingly, they decided to leave 
Holland and seek a new home in the wilds of America. In 
the ship Speedwell they sailed to Southampton, England, where 
they were joined by friends in the Mayflower. Too poor to 
bear the expense of the voyage, they succeeded in interesting 
London merchants, who furnished'aid on condition that they 
should share equally with the colonists one-half of what they 
had accumulated by the end of seven years. They were first 
called Pilgrims by Bradford, the historian of the Pilgrims, 
probably because of their wanderings. 

From Plymouth to Plymouth Rock. The Speedwell 
having proved unseaworthy, 
on September 16, 1620, the 
Pilgrims set sail in the May¬ 
flower with 102 persons on 
board. After a storm-tossed 
voyage of more than two 
months, they anchored in a 
harbor near Cape Cod. Here 
they gathered in the cabin of 
the ship and drew up an ^tr 
agreement or compact, pledg¬ 
ing to live together in peace and harmony and agreeing to 



64 


History of the United States. 



obey laws of their own making, and at the same time ac¬ 
knowledging King James as sovereign. The noble document 
was solemnly signed by all the heads of the families, forty- 
one in number. John Carver was chosen Governor. They 
then examined the coast for a suitable place in which to 
settle, and landed, December 21, in a harbor which Cap¬ 
tain Smith in 1614 had named Plymouth. Upon the shore 
lay a granite boulder, which has since borne the name of 
Plymouth Rock. 

The Pilgrims had received permission from the London 
Company to settle in its territory, but their course was changed 
by storms; so they landed on territory owned by the Council 
for New England (see p. 62), from which they later received 
(1621) a grant of one hundred acres of land for each settler. 
Among the leaders of the colony were Brewster, the preacher; 
Bradford, the ruler; and Miles Standish, the soldier. 

Hardships. Amid snow and ice they began to build cabins 
and a storehouse, using oiled paper as a substitute for window- 


Copyright 1898, by E. M. Perry. 

Departure of the Mayflower. 

glass. Their food was poor and scant enough. They had 
come from the mild climate of England and Holland to one of 
almost arctic severity, for which they were poorly clothed and 



The Period of Settlement. 


65 


housed. A number of them were compelled to stay on board 
the Mayflower. The test was almost beyond human en¬ 
durance. Before spring had come one-half their number died 
from sickness and exposure, among them Governor Carver and 
his son. But the living did not despair. Their courage never 
faltered. Two of the strongest sentiments of the human heart— 
religious zeal and love of liberty—sustained them in the hours 
of gloom. When the Mayflower returned to England in the 
spring, not a Pilgrim went with her, but others soon joined them 
from Leyden. William Bradford succeeded Carver, and served 
as governor every year excepting five until his death (1657). 

Relations with the Indians. In the spring of 1621 they 
made a treaty with Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoag In¬ 
dians, which was faithfully kept for half a century. The 
Narragansett Indians were more warlike. The chief, Canon- 
icus, sent the colonists a bundle of arrows tied with the skin 
of ,a rattlesnake. Governor Bradford accepted the war chal¬ 
lenge by returning to the hostile chief the snake-skin stuffed 
with powder and shot. The Indians, having already learned 
something of the effects of the white man’s guns, believed that 
these were means by which he controlled thunder and lightning. 
The natives remained peaceful for along time, due, probably, 
to just treatment by the colonists and to fear of their weapons. 

Growth of the Colony and Character of the Colonists. 
The colony at first grew slowly, having at the end of ten years 
only 300 persons, but it later grew more rapidly. In 1626 
the colonists bought out the claims of the London merchants 
who had advanced them money, and thus became free men. 
Their greatest wealth was not, however, in moneys and lands, 
but in ideas and spirit. They believed in equal rights to all, 
taught lessons of devotion to duty, and set a great example of 
self-rule in both civil and religious affairs. Governor Bradford 
then expressed what since Uas come true : “As one small candle 
may light a thousand, so the light here kindled hath shone to 
many, yea, in some sort to our whole nation.” 

Massachusetts Bay Colony. Encouraged by the success 
of the Pilgrims, many Puritans prepared to leave England to 


66 


History of the United States. 



seek homes in America. In 1628 a number of them purchased 
a grant of land from the Council for New England. 

The grant extended from three miles north of the Merrimac 
river (from its mouth to its source)* to three miles south of 
the Charles river, extending “from sea to sea.” The company 
the next year received a very liberal charter from the King, 
confirming the grant. The charter allowed the company, called 
the Massachusetts Bay Company, to elect a governor, deputy 

* From this wording the people of Massachusetts claimed that the limit of their colony 
was marked by a line three miles distant from the Merrimac river, and extending from 
three miles north of its mouth to three miles north of its source, thence west to the Pacific 
Ocean. This claim, however, was not allowed by the King. 



















The Period of Settlement. 


67 


governor and eighteen assistants, allowing them entire freedom 
to make laws, providing the laws did not conflict with those of 
England. Their first settlement was made under John Endi- 
cott, at Salem, 1628. About that time Charles I. began to rule 
England without a Parliament, and great streams of persecuted 
Puritans came to America. The story of the early settlements is 
everywhere the same. It was not chiefly because America drew 
them on, but because Europe drove them out, that the colonists 
came to America. 

In 1630 John Winthrop, a prominent English country gentle¬ 
man, was chosen governor. He was deeply religious, and one 
of the strongest characters in the 
early history of the colony, and is 
sometimes called the founder of New 
England. With him came a number 
of Puritans of education, wealth and 
influence. They fled from the tyr¬ 
anny of the king, and came where 
they could establish a government 
and church according to their own 
plan. In ten years, 1630-40, thou¬ 
sands of Puritans came to New Eng¬ 
land. Towns sprang up rapidly. 

Among these were Boston, Charlestown, Roxbury, Dorchester, 
and Newtown (now Cambridge). 

Government. Governor Winthrop and followers did not 
believe that all people were wise enough to take part in the 
affairs of the government. They believed in the rule of a 
select few. Winthrop said: “The best part [of the people] is 
always the least, and of the best part the wiser is always the 
lesser.” In accord with this view the colony was at first ruled 
by the governor and his assistants called the General Court. 
Only church members were allowed to vote. 

Others, led by Rev. Thomas Hooker, believed that all per¬ 
sons should have a voice in the government. Their views were 
well expressed by Hooker: “In matters which concern the 
common good, a general council, chosen by all to transact 



John Winthrop. 


68 


History of the United States. 


business which concerns all, I conceive most suitable to rule.” 
These different views were among the reasons which led Hooker 
to seek a new home and plant a new colony. The government, 
however, was improved when, in 1634, the towns were each 
allowed to send two representatives to the General Court. 
In 1644 these representatives became the lower house of the 
legislature, while the General Court became the upper house, 
which also acted as a judicial body. 

In Virginia, only property-holders were allowed to vote. In 
Massachusetts, only church members were allowed this right. 
In the former, the government was controlled by the wealthy 
land-owmers; in the latter, by the church members. In 1641 
Massachusetts established a set of written laws, the Body of 
Liberties, to which all could appeal for justice. 

The Township and Town Meeting. These early settlers 
usually came in congregations led by the ministers, and settled 
on a tract of land called a “township” or “parish.” They soon 
erected a village church, wdiich was used as a “meeting-house,” 



Copyright 1910, by E. A. Perry. 

Pilgrims Going to Church. 


not only for holding religious services, but also for transacting 
public business. A little later they constructed a separate build¬ 
ing, called the “town hall,” in which all secular meetings were 




The Period of Settlement. 


69 


held. A necessary building in some towns was the block¬ 
house, built of heavy timbers, where peo¬ 
ple could take refuge in case of a sudden 
attack by Indians. All public business 
was transacted in the “town meetings,” 
which were of great importance to all 
settlers. They developed individual re¬ 
sponsibility. Each town was practically 
a little republic. Under such freedom 
the spirit of self-government took fast 
hold of the people, and bore fruit later 
in the American Revolution against the 
tyranny of George III. 

Industries. Much of the time of the settlers was taken up 
by the building of houses, barns, fences, roads and bridges, and 
in cutting down timber to make ready for the plowman. Agri¬ 
culture and stock-raising soon became leading industries. 
Wheat, corn and rye were the principal grains; and cattle, 
hogs, sheep and horses the chief stock. The farms were small 
compared with the' great plantations in Virginia. Catching 
fish in the rivers, bays, and on the banks of Newfoundland, was 
an important industry. Boston became the center of shipping 
and ship-building. The colonists sent fish, furs and lumber 
to England in exchange for manufactured goods, and soon de¬ 
veloped trade of importance with the West Indies. 

King Philip’s War. The worst of all Indian wars in New 
England broke out in 1675. The peaceful Massasoit was dead. 
His son Philip had become chief of the Wampanoags. With 
jealous eye he had seen the grow T th of the white settlements 
and witnessed the hunting-fields of the Indians dwindle away. 
He concluded that the white man must be destroyed or the 
Indian would be exterminated. Then, too, there were alleged 
personal wrongs that he wished to avenge. So he began war 
against the colonists, 1675. He was joined by several other 
tribes. The whites rallied their forces, and carried on a bitter 
conflict for nearly two years. It was costly to the colonists. 
Thirteen towns and 600 dwellings were laid in ashes, and more 



A Block-House. 







70 History of the United States. 

than 2,000 persons lost their lives. In the end King Philip 
was killed, his tribe destroyed, and the Indian power forever 
broken in New England. 

The Salem Witchcraft. In colonial days nearly all per¬ 
sons in Europe and in the colonies believed in witches. They 
thought that some persons were used by evil spirits to bring 
harm to others. Such persons were called witehes. By laws 
of most nations they were put to death. In 1692 this terrible 
delusion took possession of the minds of the people of Salem. 
Some young girls who had been studying witchcraft imagined 
themselves to be under the control of witches. The alleged 
witches were seized by officers of the law. The craze spread 
rapidly. Nineteen were hanged on the absurd accusation of 
being witches, one was crushed to death, 150 were shut up in 
prison, and 200 more accused. So common had it become, that 
at any moment, anyone might expect to be accused of being 
a witch. The people came to their senses, finally, and saw 
their dreadful folly. The accused were liberated, and no more 
lives were sacrificed. The sad fate of the poor victims can be 
laid only to the ignorance and superstition of a people who, in 
the main, were endeavoring to do right as they saw the right 
with the light they had. 

Massachusetts Loses her Charter. Massachusetts was 
a colony of Puritans. As such, it was loyal to the Puritan rule 
of Oliver Cromwell. But when 
Charles II. became King, the peo¬ 
ple in Massachusetts did not fare 
so well. He charged them with vio¬ 
lating the Navigation Acts. He 
was displeased because they gave 
shelter to four of the judges who 
sent his father, Charles I., to the 
scaffold, and because' the colony 
coined money without royal au¬ 
thority, and opposed the Church of 
England. He did not like their 
independence in matters of govern- 



Charles II., King of^ England, 
1660-1685. 




The Period of Settlement. * 


71 


ment, so he withdrew the charter of Massachusetts (1684) and 
made the colony a royal province. Sir Edmond Andros was 
sent over as governor of New England and New York. The 
next year James II. succeeded to the throne, and continued 
Andros as governor. 

Rule of Andros. The rule of Andros, like that of his royal 
master, was harsh, but neither wise nor strong. Being em¬ 
powered to bring the New England colonies under his rule, 
he abolished the General Court and the town meeting. He 
taxed the people without their consent, and declared many of 
the old land titles worthless. In short, he took all power to 
rule from the people and placed it in the hands of the royal 
governor and his council. 

A revolution in England drove King James from his throne. 
William and Mary were invited to succeed him. When the 
news reached New England the colonists concluded to put an 
end to the tyranny of Andros. Soldiers and farmers flocked 
to Boston, ready to fight. Andros and his agents were seized 
and thrown into prison. In the mean time, William and Mary 
became rulers of England. Connecticut and Rhode Island 
were allowed to keep their old charters, but a new one was 
granted to Massachusetts, 1692, which placed Maine and 
Plymouth under Massachusetts. The governor, appointed by 
the king, had the right to veto any law made by the repre¬ 
sentatives of the people. Thus the unrestricted right of the 
people to rule themselves was gone but not forgotten. They 
often made trouble for the royal governors, until the final 
struggle for independence. 

Different Views on Religion. Not many years after the 
founding of Massachusetts, the people began to differ on 
questions of religion and government. The Puritans had come 
to America in order that they might worship God in their own 
way, which they believed was the only right way. The free¬ 
dom which they sought, they now denied to others. They 
began to persecute those who differed from them. Among 
these were Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, and members 
of the sect known as Quakers. 


72 


History of the United States. 


Roger Williams was a minister in Salem, a graduate of 
Cambridge, and a man of great natural ability. Some of his 


teachings were contrary to the 
views of most of the Puritans. 
Williams said if a man did 
not wish to go to church, or 
to pay a tax to support min¬ 
isters or churches, he should 
not be forced to do so. Every 
man should have a right to 
worship God according to his 
own conscience. The state 
should not have control over 
the church. He also declared 
that the soil of America be¬ 
longed to the Indians, and no 
king had any right to sell or 



The Church at Salem in which 
Roger Williams Preached. 


give away the land without paying them for it. These teachings 
are in accord with our system of government today, but at that 
time they were viewed with great alarm. The General Court 
decided by a small majority that Williams must be exiled to 
England. But when the attempt was made to arrest him he 
escaped into the wilderness (1636), and founded a new colony, 
Rhode Island. 

Anne Hutchinson. About the same time, the teachings 
of Anne Hutchinson added to the excitement. Her ideas 
brought her quite a following. Among them was the governor, 
Sir Henry Vane, and a few ministers,.but most of the people 
considered her doctrine heresy. She was banished (1637), 
and like Williams went into the wilderness. With some of 
her followers she founded new settlements at Portsmouth and 
Newport, on the island of Rhode Island. 

The Quakers. The Quakers, or Friends as we know them 
today, are good, quiet and peaceable people. But in 1656, 
when two Quaker missionary women landed in Boston, they 
were arrested and locked up; and boards were nailed over the 
prison windows so no one could talk with them, so great was 


The Period of Settlement. 


73 


the fear of their evil influence. Finally they were sent back 
to England, where all sorts of punishments were inflicted upon 
members of their sect. The Puritans believed that the teach¬ 
ings of the Quakers would destroy religion and government, so 
the severest laws were passed to punish them. They were 
imprisoned, fined, whipped,' branded with red-hot irons, their 
ears were cut off, and in Massachusetts four were hanged. But 
still the Quakers increased in number, and taught the doctrine 
of the simple, peaceful life, following the “inner light” to guide 
them in life and save them in death. They finally overcame 
the bigotry of the times, and won a place as a great religious 
sect. 

SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. 

The Connecticut Valley. The-beautiful Connecticut valley 
was an inviting place to home-seekers. Large quantities of 
fine fish were in the streams, and on their banks was an abun¬ 
dance of otter, beaver and other fur-bearing animals. The soil 
was fertile. So the valley offered fine opportunities for farm¬ 
ing, fishing, and fur-trading,—three of the chief occupations on 
which the colonists then relied. 

Settlement. The English were quick to see the natural 
advantages of the valley. ' Attracted by its beauty and rich¬ 
ness, and urged by a desire for greater religious liberty, some of 
the colonists desired to make new settlements in this inviting 
region. John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop of Massa¬ 
chusetts, in 1635 built a fort at the mouth of the Connecticut 
river,* and named it Saybrook. The same year small settle¬ 
ments were made at Windsor and Wethersfield. The next 
year a large number of families, led by Rev. Thomas Hooker, 
left Newtown (now Cambridge, Mass.), journeyed on foot across 
the country, and settled at Hartford. They carried their 
household goods with them, and drove their cattle and hogs 
ahead through the roadless country, to build new homes in the 
wilderness. This was the first of the great westward move- 

* The Dutch had established trading-posts along the river and built a fort, in 1633, 
near the place where Hartford now stands, but they did not attempt to make settlements. 


74 


History of the United States. 


ments, which did not stop until the descendants of the English 
colonists reached the shores of the Pacific. 

The First Written Constitution, 1639. The people of 
Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield, feeling the need of some 
organized government, met at Hartford (1639) and formed a 
union of the settlements. For the purpose of governing them¬ 
selves, they drew up a written constitution called the Funda¬ 
mental Orders. This was the first written constitution in 
America. Before this time, Connecticut was nominally under 
Massachusetts, but now it became the independent colony of 
Connecticut. The government was thoroughly democratic; 
the colony was in reality a small republic. Each town chose 
four persons for the legislature, called the “ General Court.” 
The Governor and six assistants, called magistrates, were 
elected by the people in the whole colony. All were allowed 
to vote. 

New Haven Colony. Another settlement of importance 
was made by a company of rich London merchants under the 
leadership of John Davenport, an able minister. They arrived 
at Boston, 1637. The next year they founded a new colony, at 
New Haven, on Long Island Sound. A few years later, settle¬ 
ments were made at Milford, Guilford, and Stamford. These 
were afterwards united with New Haven into one colony called 
the New Haven Colony, which was wholly self-governing. 

The Pequot War, 1637. The Pequots were the leading 
tribe in this region. They had seen the white man encroach 
gradually on their hunting-grounds, and began to retaliate, 
not in open warfare, but in treacherous murders. Warriors 
would lurk in the woods or lie in ambush, and when they found 
a man hunting, fishing, or at work, they would kill him. Often 
they would attack and kill isolated families, and sometimes 
carry women and children into slavery. Through the efforts 
of Roger Williams the Narragansetts were kept from joining 
the Pequots in an attempt to massacre the whites. 

After a number of settlers were killed, the colonists sent a 
small army against the Pequot fort on the Mystic river. 
About 100 colonists and 270 friendly Indians made the attack, 


The Period of Settlement. 


75 


before daylight. They surprised the Pequots and set fire to 
the fort. Those who escaped from the flames were shot down. 
Over 400 perished. The war spirit of the Indians was broken. 
No serious trouble occurred again in New England until King 
Philip’s War, in 1675. 

The United Colonies of New England, 1643. In 1643 
Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven 
(all the colonies except Rhode Island) formed a union called 
the United Colonies of New England. The object was to pro¬ 
tect the colonies from the Dutch on the west, who claimed the 
Connecticut valley; from the French on the north, and from 
the Indians everywhere. A commission of eight, two from each 
colony, had charge of all dealings with Indians and foreign 
powers. The cause of any one colony thus became the cause 
of all. This union was a decisive step towards forming a single 
nation out of the thirteen colonies. 

The Royal Charter and the Charter Oak. In 1662 King 
Charles II. gave a charter to Connecticut. New Haven was 
annexed to the Connecticut colony. The charters of Connecti¬ 
cut and Rhode Island were the most liberal ever granted by any 
king to any colony. No rights of legislation were reserved to 
the king. It is strange that such liberal governments should 
have been given to the colo¬ 
nists by a king who was so 
much of a tyrant in England. 

The Connecticut grant in¬ 
cluded all lands between the 
Massachusetts Bay grant and 
Long Island Sound, from 
Narragansett Bay to the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean. The width of 
the continent was not then 
known. Areas and distan¬ 
ces in America were under¬ 
estimated, probably by a comparison with those in England. 

♦The oak was blown down in 1856. A marble tablet in the city of Hartford marks 
the spot where it stood. Before Jhe tree was blown down the cavity in which the charter 
was hidden had increased in size so that twenty-one men could stand in it. The circumfer¬ 
ence of the tree near the ground was then 33 feet. 



76 


History of the United States. 


When James II. came to the throne, he determined to take 
the charters from Connecticut and Rhode Island as his brother, 
Charles II., had done from Massachusetts. It was an evil day 
for the colonists when Edmund Andros was sent by the king as 
Governor of New England. In 1687 he went with a body of 
troops to Hartford to get the charter. He met the legislature, 
who debated the matter late into the night. The charter lay on 
the table. Great crowds of excited people listened to Governor 
Treat pleading for the charter, as he told of the sufferings, hard¬ 
ships and sacrifices of his people in their efforts to build homes in 
the wilderness. Andros would not yield. Suddenly the lights 
went out, and when they were relighted the charter was gone. 
Captain Wadsworth had seized and hidden it in the hollow of a 
great oak, which has since been known as the Charter Oak. 
Andros, however, declared the government by charter at an 
end. Some years later (1689), when Andros was thrown into 
prison by the colonists and his arbitrary rule was brought to an 
end, the precious document was brought from its hiding-place 
and again became the law of the colony. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Settlement at Providence. Roger Williams, after his 
banishment from Massachusetts, spent the winter with the 
Indians. He bought a tract of land of them, and in June, 1636, 
with five companions began a settlement which he named 
Providence. Three years later he founded, in his colony, the 
first Baptist church. For the first time in the history of the 
country religion was separated from state affairs. No one was 
compelled to pay taxes for the church. Every man was allowed 
freedom in religious beliefs and forms of worship. The colony 
soon became a refuge for those persecuted for conscience sake. 
Today our constitutions, state and national, declare the same 
principles of religious toleration that Williams put into practice. 

Patent for Providence Plantations. In 1643 Roger Will¬ 
iams secured a patent by which the settlements at Portsmouth 
and Newport were united with Providence. Together these 
were called the Providence Plantations. By this patent 


The Period of Settlement. 


77 



Roger Williams among the Indians. 

colonists were allowed to hold the territory they occupied. 
They were permitted to make their own laws and thus become 
practically a republic. 

The Charter of 1663.* The Colonists obtained a charter 
from Charles II. (1663) under the name of Rhode Island and 
Providence Plantations, granting all the rights and privileges 
which they had thus far enjoyed. It expressly stated that no 
one should ever be made to suffer for his opinions in matters of 
religion. The charter was quite as liberal as that of Connecti¬ 
cut. It remained in force with few changes until 1842, when 
it was replaced by the adoption of a Constitution. 

* Rhode Island was the smallest of all the colonies. It included the land lying south 
of Massachusetts between Narragansett Bay and Pawcatuck river. 




78 


History of the United States. 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Grant to Mason and Gorges. The Council for New Eng¬ 
land gave a grant of land, 1662, to John Mason* and Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges, lying between the Merrimac and Kennebec 
rivers, and extending sixty miles inland from the shore. In 
1629 they divided the property, Mason taking the territory 
between the Merrimac and Piscataqua rivers, which he called 
New Hampshire; and Gorges, the land between the Piscataqua 
and the Kennebec, which he called Maine. 

Settlement of New Hampshire. The first settlement of 
New Hampshire under the direction of Mason was made at 
Dover, 1623. Near the same time another settlement was made 
at Portsmouth, by fishermen. Some followers of Anne Hutch¬ 
inson, driven from Massachusetts, settled at Exeter (1638). 
Others founded the town of Hampton. The growth of the 
colony was slow. In 1641 the colonists petitioned for a union 
with Massachusetts, as a protection against the Indians. The 
petition was granted. As a result, New Hampshire was a part 
of Massachusetts until 1692, when it was made a separate 
province, and remained such until the Revolution. 

MAINE. 

The first permanent settlement in Maine was made at Fort 
Pemaquid, 1626. Saco and Biddeford were settled in 1630, 
and Portland, 1632. Some time after the death of Gorges his 
heirs sold their province of Maine to Massachusetts, for £1,250. 
It remained part of Massachusetts until 1820, when it was ad¬ 
mitted to the Union as a separate State. 

* Mason received a new grant from the Council for New England (1635, but not con¬ 
firmed by the King), which extended his territory to the Naumkee river. This over¬ 
lapped the Massachusetts Grant. 

Mason’s Grant of 1639 extended inland from the coast 120 miles, between the Kenne¬ 
bec and Piscataqua rivers. 


The Period of Settlement . 


79 


Suggestions for Review. 

What was the Council for New England? Give the extent of its grant. 
Who were the Puritans? Separatists? Tell of the founding of Plymouth. 
Tell about the Compact. What Indians lived near Plymouth? Who was 
their chief? What was the character of the colonists? Tell of the govern¬ 
ment of the colony. What was the town meeting? What were the in¬ 
dustries of the colonists? Tell of King Philip’s war. What was the 
Salem Witchcraft? When did Massachusetts lose her charter? Who was 
the first royal governor? What colonies were united with Massachusetts? 

What were the religious views of Roger Williams? Anne Hutchinson? 
The Quakers? Tell the story of the settlement of Connecticut,—how? 
when, where, and by whom. What were the Fundamental Orders? What 
Indian troubles did the people in Connecticut have? What colonies 
formed a union in 1643? For what purpose? Why important? When 
did Connecticut become a royal province? What was the Charter Oak? 

Under what circumstances was Rhode Island founded? When and by 
whom? Tell something of the character and beliefs of the persons who 
founded the colony. How did they treat the Indians? What were the 
Providence Plantations? Give a brief history of the settlement of New 
Hampshire and Maine. 

Tell something about the following named persons, places, and dates: 
John Robinson, Miles Standish, William Bradford, Massasoit, John Win- 
throp, Edmond Andros, Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, Thomas 
Hooker; Scrooby, Plymouth, Salem, Boston, Hartford, Saybrook, New 
Haven, Providence, Dover, Fort Pemaquid; 1620, 1623, 1628, 1636, 1638, 
1643, 1662, 1675. 


CHAPTER VI. 

PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT. 

SETTLEMENT OF THE MIDDLE COLONIES. 

NEW YORK. 

The Dutch Fur Traders. Henry Hudson, after his return 
to Europe from America, gave a brilliant'account of the beauty 
of the new country, the great forests and the abundance of 
fine furs which could be secured from the natives for mere 
trifles. At once Dutch merchants sent out ships to engage in 
trade. In 1614 Dutch traders built four rude huts on Man¬ 
hattan Island. The next year they built a fort up the Hudson 
near the site of Albany. All the early activities of the Dutch 
were in the interest of fur-trading, which was a quicker-road 
to riches than farming. The good-will of the Indians was nec¬ 
essary, so the Dutch cultivated and won their friendship, and 
soon found profit in exchanging blankets and trinkets for val¬ 
uable furs. 

The Dutch West India Company. In 1621 a company 
called the Dutch West India Company was formed to carry 
on trade more effectively and to exclude others who might wish 
to engage in the same business. The Dutch government gave 
them exclusive right “to traffic and plant colonies” in America 
“from the Strait of Magellan to the remotest north.” The 
first colony was sent over by the company in 1623. Some of 
the colonists settled at Manhattan Island, now a part of the 
City of New York; some went up the Delaware river and built 
Fort Nassau, just below Philadelphia; while others went up 
the Hudson, and rebuilt the fort on the present site of Albany, 
which they named Fort Orange. In 1626 Peter Minuit w T as 
sent over as governor with new settlers. He landed at Man¬ 
hattan Island and named the town New Amsterdam, and pur- 

80 


The Period of Settlement. 


81 


chased the entire island of about 14,000 acres for twenty-four 
dollars’ worth of cloth and trinkets, at the rate of about one- 
sixth of a cent an acre. 

The Patroons. The company took a novel plan to increase 
immigration and introduce farming. They offered a tract of 
land eight miles long on each side of a river, or sixteen miles 
along one side, extending inland as far as the soil could be occu¬ 
pied to advantage, to members of the West India Company 
who would make a settlement of fifty persons within four 
years after the date of their grant. The owners of these grants 
were called patroons. They were to bear the expense of bring¬ 
ing the immigrants, of stocking the farms, and of furnishing a 
minister and a schoolmaster. Except for the regulations of 
the company in trade and war, the patroon was absolute ruler 
of his land, practically monarch of a little kingdom. He was 
owner, ruler, and judge. His will was supreme. Without his 
permission, settlers could not vote, hold office, manufacture 
goods, hunt or fish. The patroon had first right to btiy the 
produce of the soil. The most noted of the patroon settle¬ 
ments was that of Van Rensselaer, who acquired a tract of 
land larger than the state of Rhode Island. The system proved 
harmful to the colony. It created a few wealthy land-owners 
at the expense of the masses. Out of it grew the Anti-Rent 
difficulties of 1839-1845. Fortunately, not a large number of 
these grants were given. An important change was made in 
1638, giving to all comers the rights of trade and settlement. 
This marks the beginning of the real growth of the colony. 
A tide of immigration swept in from the other colonies and 
also from the nations of Europe, making a great mixture of 
people and languages. 

Indian Policy. The Dutch soon after their arrival made a 
treaty with the Iroquois Indians, which was faithfully kept by 
both sides. The Dutch accorded their dusky neighbors fair 
treatment. They always paid them for their lands and dealt 
honestly when trading for furs. Though friends of the Dutch 
and later of the English, the Indians remained enemies to the 
French. (See p. 34.) But in New Jersey and along the lower 


History of the United States. 


Hudson there were bloody wars with the Algonquian tribes of 
Indians, who were finally subdued. 

Government. The colony was ruled by a governor and a 
small council of advisers. The people had no part in their 
government. They were not allowed the town meeting as in 
New England or the assembly as in Virginia. They could 
send complaints to Holland and petition to have the governor 
removed. 

All sects were allowed religious freedom, except for a time 
during Stuyvesant’s rule. He tried without success to have 
all persons conform to the Dutch Reformed Church. 

The people of New Netherland were not happy under the arbi¬ 
trary rule of the Dutch governors. They longed for the rights 
and freedom which other colonists enjoyed. Their efforts to 
secure these rights led to a bitter struggle between the people 
and the governors. In 1647 the people secured the right to 
choose a number of their most trusted men, from whom the 
governor was required to select nine to advise with him. The 
next year New Amsterdam was allowed its own government. 
As the governor appointed the officers for New Amsterdam 
and consulted his advisers at his own will, but little good 
resulted to the people. 

New Netherland became New York, 1664. The English 
claimed the territory occupied by the Dutch, by right of Cabot’s 
discoveries. This territory was included in the grant given by 
James I. to the Plymouth Company, but the English made 
no settlements to enforce their claims, while the Dutch fol¬ 
lowed up Hudson’s discovery by actual settlement. 

Reasons Why the Dutch were not Disturbed. For 
many years the English were on friendly terms with the Dutch. 
They had been allies against Spain. (See p. 37.) Their friend¬ 
ship was strengthened by ties of kinship and religion. Then, 
too, while the Dutch were colonizing New Netherland the Eng¬ 
lish were engaged in civil strife at home. The English kings 
had no time to look after their interests in America, so the 
Dutch were not molested. 


The Period of Settlement . 


83 


Capture by the English. Finally, the growing importance 
of Dutch commerce aroused the jealousy of England. The 
Navigation Act of 1651 was aimed directly at the Dutch trade. 
In 1664 Charles II. gave all of New Netherland to his brother, 
the Duke of York and Albany.* An English fleet bearing an 
army was sent to take possession of the colony. Governor 
Stuyvesant wanted to fight, but his army was small, and the 
colonists, hoping to have more liberty under English rule, re¬ 
fused to aid him. So the helpless governor was forced to sur¬ 
render. In 1664 New Netherland became New York; Fort 
Orange was changed to Albany; and the city of New Amster¬ 
dam became the city of New York. 

DELAWARE. 

Settlement. The first attempt to settle what is now the 
state of Delaware was made by Dutch patroons. A deed was 
secured and a settlement of thirty persons made on Lewes 
creek, near Cape Henlopen (1631), but the entire settlement 
was destroyed by the Indians. Only the ruins of the old fort 
remain to tell their sad fate. 

Peter Minuit having been removed from office as governor 
of New Netherland, afterward offered his services to the Swe¬ 
dish crown to plant a colony in America. In 1638 a permanent 
settlement was made near Wilmington by a colony of Swedes 
led by Minuit. They named the colony New Sweden and the 
settlement Christiana, in honor of the young queen of Sweden. 
The settlers secured a grant from the government of Sweden, 
which up to this time had made no discoveries or explorations, 
and hence had no right to grant territory already claimed by 
the English and the Dutch. The Dutch West India Company 
protested, and built Fort Nassau on the east bank of the Dela¬ 
ware river. The Swedes made other settlements and their 
colony prospered until Peter Stuyvesant, governor of New 
Netherland, sent an armed force, 1655, which compelled the 
Swedes to surrender. New Sweden became part of New 

* The grant to the Duke of York included all land from the Connecticut river to the 
Delaware river. 


84 


History of the United States. 


Netherland (New York, after 1664), and remained so until 
1681, when the Duke of York sold it to William Penn, a personal 
friend. 

Under Pennsylvania. Penn called the country “The 
Territories ,, or the “Three lower counties on the Delaware.” 
Up to the Revolution, Delaware was a part of Pennsylvania, 
under the same governor, but with a separate assembly or 
legislature after 1703. In 1776 “The Territories” declared 
themselves free and independent, and took the name of Dela¬ 
ware. 

MARYLAND. 

Settlement of Maryland, 1634. Maryland was founded 
by George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore, as a refuge for the 
Roman Catholics, who at this time were being persecuted in 
England. No Catholic was then admitted to a seat in Parlia¬ 
ment or allowed to employ a Catholic teacher, or to educate 
his children in a foreign land. He was heavily fined if he did 
not attend the services of the church authorized by the gov¬ 
ernment, and in other ways suffered on account of his religion. 

The noble-minded Lord Baltimore, 
himself a Catholic, now came to their 
rescue. From King Charles I. he se¬ 
cured the promise of a grant to a por¬ 
tion of Virginia, to which he purposed 
to lead the oppressed people of his faith. 
Before his plans were completed, he 
died. His eldest son, Cecil Calvert, 
received the grant from the King and 
carried on the projected work. In 
1633 Cecil Calvert sent to the territory 
thus granted a colony of about 300 
persons under his brother Leonard as 
governor. The colonists purchased 
the claims of the Indians to the land, and made a settlement 
(1634) near the mouth of the Potomac, which they named St. 
Marys. 



Cecil Calvert. 



The Period of Settlement. 


85 



Grants to the Duke of York, William Penn, and Lord Baltimore. 

Grant to the Duke of York extended from the Connecticut to the Delaware river. 

Penn’s Grant extended from the Delaware river westward five degrees, between the 
beginning of the 40th and the beginning of the 43rd degrees. 

Baltimore’s grant lay between the 40th degree and the Potomac river. 

Extent of the Grant. Baltimore’s grant included all land 
lying between the “fortieth degree” of north latitude and the 
Potomac river from its source to its mouth, extending east to 
the ocean and up the Delaware Bay to the 40th degree. It 
was named Maryland, in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. 
The whole territory was carved out of Virginia, which was at 
that time a royal province. 

Government. The charter was a remarkable document. 
By it the King gave up all his rights in the colony, except to 
require the proprietor to bring him each year two Indian arrows 
as a token of loyalty to the crown, and one-fifth of all gold and 
silver which might be found. The proprietor received almost 
absolute power to govern the colony. He could make laws 
with the assent of the people, rent or sell lands, appoint all 
officers, coin money, declare war and make peace, levy tolls 





































86 


History of the United States. 


and duties. In short, he was monarch of his province. All 
laws had to conform “to reason,” and not be contrary to the 
laws of England. 

Though Baltimore had the rights of a king, he ruled with the 
spirit of a man among men. From the beginning the people 
were given a voice in their own government, at first only the 
right to approve laws, but later the right to make them. 

Religious Freedom. Freedom of worship was allowed to 
all Christians from the beginning. No other colony and no 
other country in the world at this time enjoyed such liberty, 
though in Massachusetts Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson 
and others were pleading for it, and secured it a few years later 
in the colony of Rhode Island. This basic principle in religion 
was enacted into law by the Maryland legislature in 1649. 
This was the famous Toleration Act, which provided that no 
one professing faith in Jesus Christ should be molested on 
account of his religious beliefs. 

Objects and Character of Colonists. These colonists were 
not dreamers, idlers, or gold-seekers. They came to America 
to build homes and to escape persecution. The first settlers 
included both Catholics and Protestants. They won the friend¬ 
ship of the Indians and set to work to cultivate the fields, and 
soon had tobacco, corn and wheat, not alone for their own use, 
but also for export. They thus escaped two great dangers, 
Indian massacre and starvation, which destroyed or threatened 
to destroy a number of other settlements. The colony at once 
launched into a career of peace, growth, and prosperity. 

Troubles for the Proprietors. Maryland was, however, 
not without her troubles. They came from two sources: one 
was the quarrels between the Protestants and Catholics; the 
other was caused by Virginians who were displeased because 
Maryland was formed out of Virginia. 

Claibokne’s Rebellion. William Claiborne had built a 
thriving settlement and trading-post on Kent Island in the 
Chesapeake Bay before Lord Baltimore received his grant. 
Claiborne refused to recognize the authority of Baltimore, and 
tried to hold the island by force of arms, but he was finally 


The Period of Settlement. 


87 


expelled. Some years later he returned and stirred up a civil 
war by leading the Protestants against the Catholics. After 
several attempts, he succeeded in capturing St. Mary’s and in 
driving Calvert out of the colony; but Calvert was restored 
to his authority by the greatest of all Puritans, Oliver Crom¬ 
well, then ruler of England, who knew how to be just as well 
as harsh. For his loss in Maryland Claiborne received a grant 
of land in Virginia. In 1691 the king deprived Baltimore of 
his colony and made it a royal province. The Protestants 
then gained control, established the Church of England and 
passed laws persecuting the Catholics and to some extent the 
Puritans. 

. The Calverts were again restored to authority (1715), when 
the fourth Lord Baltimore, who had become a Protestant, was 
made governor and proprietor of the colony. He and his 
descendants ruled until the Revolution. 

NEW JERSEY. 

New Jersey Part of New York. All of the present state of 
New Jersey was part of New Netherland until 1664. While 
the Dutch were in control they established a trading-post at 
Bergen (1617), on the west bank of the Hudson; and in 1623 
a block-house as a fort on the Jersey side of the Delaware, a 
few miles below Philadelphia; but no progress was made toward 
settlement until the territory became an English province 
(1664). 

New Jersey Under English Rule. Soon after the Duke of 

York received his province he sold the land between the Dela¬ 
ware and the ocean to two friends, Lord John Berkeley and Sir 
George Carteret. The province was named New Jersey in 
honor of Carteret, who was governor of the Island of Jersey 
in the English Channel, and who had won fame in defending 
the island for the King against Cromwell’s forces. 

The first permanent settlement was made at Elizabethtown, 
1665, by Philip Carteret, nephew of the proprietor, who was 
sent over as governor. As the people were allowed freedom of 
worship and a voice in the government, many settlers came to 


88 


History of the United States. 


the colony, especially from New England. Newark was 
founded, 1666, and Salem inf 1675. " The colonists purchased 
the land from the Indians and won their good-will. 

East and West Jersey. In 1674 Berkeley sold his interest 
to Quakers, and two years later the province was divided into 
East and West Jersey. Carteret took 
East Jersey and the successors of 
Berkeleys, among them William Penn, 
took West Jersey. In 1682 William 
Penn and twenty-three others pur¬ 
chased East Jersey of the heirs of 
Carteret. Thus the whole province 
came into the hands of Quakers, 
though many Scotch Presbyterians 
settled among them. 

Troubles with the Proprietors. 
The Duke of York soon began to 
regret the fact that he had given 
away New Jersey. He tried to re¬ 
cover it, but William Penn argqed 
the case in England with such skill that the Duke was forced 
to yield the ownership of the soil to the people. 

There was much trouble between the colonists and the 
proprietors on account of rent collections and land titles, due 
to the frequent change of proprietors. After quarreling with 
the settlers for several years, the proprietors gave up their 
rights to the colony (1702). New Jersey became a royal 
province, having the same governor as New York until 1738, 
but a different assembly. After 1738 it had a separate governor 
appointed by the king, and remained a royal province until the 
Revolution. 



East Jersey and West Jersey. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

The Quakers. The Quakers took an important part in the 
settlement of three colonies—Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and 
Delaware. Their ideals and modes of life were important 
factors in the history of these colonies. Their influence and 





The Period of Settlement. 


89 


thoughts, like those of Puritan and Cavalier, helped to mould 
our national character. 

The creed of the Quakers was simplicity of life and worship. 
They wore plain dress, used simple speech, opposed taxes for 
war purposes, and would not take an oath on the witness-stand 
or go to war. They believed that ministers were unnecessary 
and that truth was revealed to each person by an “ inner light 
or the voice of God in his soul. They refused to stand with 
uncovered head before the most august body: to God alone 
was due such homage. All men, they said, were equal in the 
sight of God and should be in the sight of man; so they re¬ 
fused to recognize rank, title, or honor, and addressed all men 
by the term of “friend” or “thee” and “thou.” 

William Penn. George Fox was the founder and William 
Penn the greatest apostle of the Quakers. Both were ridiculed, 
abused, and imprisoned, but their 
courage and devotion never failed. 

Their faith was nourished by the 
persecution of themselves and their 
followers. Penn, when young, was 
thrown into prison for writing a book 
without a license to do so. He was 
threatened with prison for life if he 
did not change his religion. His 
prompt reply was, “My prison shall 
be my grave before I will budge a 
jot.” His father, seeing it was use¬ 
less to try to change his views, paid 



William Penn. 


his fine to have him released. 

Penn’s connection with New Jersey suggested to him the 
idea of planting a colony in America which should be a refuge 
for the persecuted of all religions in all lands. His father, who 
was. a distinguished English admiral and in high favor with the 
King, died in 1670, leaving his son William a great inheritance. 
A part of the estate was a claim of £16,000 against King Charles 
II., but he was short of funds and Penn in need of money. 
At Penn’s suggestion the King in 1681 gave him a great tract of 


90 


History of the United States. 


land in America almost as large as England itself. Charles 
named the province in honor of Penn’s father, Pennsylvania, 
meaning Penn’s woodland. 

Settlement. Penn at once began preparation on a large 
scale to settle his province, advertising it thoroughly in Europe 
and New England. The first colonists came over in 1681, 
under his cousin, William Markham, as governor. The next 
year Penn sailed with a hundred colonists and laid out the 
city of Philadelphia, the name meaning “loving one’s brother.” 
The first house was built in 1683, and within two years more 
than 2,000 persons had established homes there. 

The Charter and the Great Body of Laws. The charter 
to Penn was quite similar to that given to Lord Baltimore, 
though not quite so liberal. Penn was the personal owner of 
the land, some 46,000 square miles. To him the people paid 
the rents and of him they purchased lands. He was required 
to give to the king each year “two beaver-skins,” and one-fifth 
of the gold and silver found. The colonists were not to be 
taxed without their consent and the laws were not to conflict 
with the laws of England. 

To the Swedish and Dutch settlers already on his land Penn 
announced, “You shall be governed by laws of your own mak¬ 
ing and live a free, and, if you will, a sober and industrious 
life.” 

Upon his arrival in America he stopped at Upland, Penn¬ 
sylvania (now Chester), and called together an assembly of 
law-makers. The assembly agreed to what is called “The 
Great Law,” a system of government drawn up in England 
by Penn’s own hand. 1. The government was declared to 
be for the benefit of the people. 2. Freedom of conscience was 
granted without regard to sect or color. 3. Every child past 
twelve was required to “be brought up” to some trade or useful 
occupation. 4. Only two crimes, treason and murder, were 
punished by death. 5. A trial by jury was granted to all, 
even to Indians. 6. Every prison was to be made a work¬ 
shop and place for reform as well as a place for punishment. 
7. There should be no cock-fights, stage-plays, lotteries, drunk- 


The Period of Settlement. 


91 


enness, swearing or dueling in the colony. 8. Taxes were to 
be levied only by the assembly. 

Extent. Penn’s grant extended from the Delaware river westward 
five degrees between “the beginning of the 40th degree” and “the be¬ 
ginning of the 43rd degree.” (See map, pp. 85.) Penn argued that a 
degree is the distance between two parallels. The beginning of the 40th 
degree is the 39th parallel. The beginning of the 43rd degree is the 42nd 
parallel. So he claimed all land between the 39th and the 42nd parallels. 
This overlapped Lord Baltimore’s grant by one degree, for his claim ex¬ 
tended north to the 40th parallel. By Baltimore’s claim, Philadelphia, 
Penn’s favorite city, was included in Maryland. The result was a long 
and bitter quarrel between the two proprietors and their heirs. The 
dispute was finally settled (1763-1767) by a compromise. 

The Mason and Dixon Line. Two eminent astronomers, 
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, were appointed by the 
heirs of the proprietors to make a survey. They cut a vista 
24 feet wide among the trees, in the middle of which they set 
stones a mile apart. Every fifth one was marked on one side 
with the coat of arms of the Penns, and the other with the arms 
of Baltimore. After four years of labor <they fixed the pres¬ 
ent boundary between Maryland and Pennsylvania, the his¬ 
toric Mason and Dixon Line, which later, by imaginary ex¬ 
tension, became famous as a dividing line between the free and 
slave states. 

Indian Policy. Penn’s fair treatment of the Indians won 
their friendship. Soon after his arrival he met the chiefs of 
the various tribes beneath a stately elm near Philadelphia, and 
made a treaty. The Indians were to be paid for their lands. 
Both English and Indians were to live in peace and friendship. 
In addressing them Penn said: “He and his children never 
fire a rifle, never trust to the sword; they meet the red man 
on the broad path of good faith and good will. They mean 
no harm and have no fear.” The Indians agreed that they would 
live in peace with the white men while the sun shines and the 
rivers run to the sea. No oaths or seals were used, but only 
promises made, which were faithfully kept by both sides until 
the French and Indian War. 


92 


History of the United States. 



Penn’s Treaty with the Indians. 


Growth. Penn went to England in 1684, and when he re¬ 
turned fifteen years later *he found great changes. The popu¬ 
lation had increased to 20,000 persons, of whom 10,000 lived 
in the thriving city of Philadelphia. In it were tanneries, 
flour-mills, potteries, saw-mills, and many lines of business. 
Its merchants carried on a profitable trade with England and 
the West Indies. In 1701 Penn bade a final farewell to the 
colony and sailed for England. The greatness of the man was 
reflected in the laws of the colony* and was the means of bring¬ 
ing peace and happiness to the people. 

Suggestions for Review. 

Who first explored the Hudson valley? What was the extent of the 
Dutch claim? What settlements did they make? What was the Dutch 
West India Company? Tell of the Dutch fur traders? Who were the 
Patroons? Was such a system beneficial or harmful to the colony? Why? 
What was the relation of the Dutch with the Indians? What other 
nation also claimed New Netherland? Why were the Dutch for a long 
time not disturbed by the English? What was the extent of the grant 








The Period of Settlement. 


93 


to the Duke of York? When did New Netherland become New York? 
Why was the capture of New Netherland so easily made by the English? 

Who first attempted to settle Delaware? Who made the first permanent 
settlement? What was the country named? Tell how it became part of 
New Netherland and later part of Penn’s province. 

New Jersey was at first a part of what other colony? When did it 
become English territory? 

Where, by whom, and under what circumstances was Maryland founded? 
What was the extent of Baltimore’s grant? Where was the first settle¬ 
ment made? Date? Tell of the government of the colony. What was 
the famous Toleration Act? What class of people came to Maryland? 
What trouble arose between Baltimore and some Virginians? What 
was the final outcome of these troubles? 

Who were the Quakers? What was their creed? How did Penn ob¬ 
tain a grant? What city was founded in 1683? Tell of Penn’s system of 
government. What was the Body of Laws? What was the extent of 
Penn’s grant?* What boundary was in dispute? What was the “Mason 
and Dixon Line”? What was Penn’s Indian policy? Tell of the growth 
of Philadelphia. What influence did Penn have in the colony? What did 
the “Mason and Dixon Line” at a later date become noted for? 

Tell something of the following named persons, places, and dates: 
The Duke of York, Peter Stuyvesant, Cecil Carteret or the second Lord 
Baltimore, Claiborne, John Berkeley, George Carteret, William Penn, 
George Fox; Manhattan Island, St. Mary’s, Christiana, Elizabethtown; 
1614, 1623, 1634, 1638, 1664, 1665, 1682. 

Make a map showing the extent of the grants to the Duke of York, 
William Penn, and Lord Baltimore. 

Tell the chief facts of this chapter or write an outline of it. 


CHAPTER VII. 

THE PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT. 

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES. 

THE CAROLINAS. 

The Carolina Grant. In 1663 Charles II. gave a grant 
of land to a company composed of Lord Clarendon and seven 
associates, which he named the province of Carolina. It em¬ 
braced all the land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, between 
the 31st and 36th parallels. Two years later it was enlarged 
to include the land south to the 29th parallel and northward 



94 













The Period of Settlement. 


95 


to 36° 30'. The original extent of Virginia was thus reduced 
by the various grants from its original size to its present extent 
along the coast. 

The charter gave almost unlimited power to the Company. 
“Every favor,” it has been said, “was extended to the pro¬ 
prietors ; nothing' was neglected but the interest of the English 
sovereign and the rights of the colonists.” 

Settlement. Before Carolina was formed, traders and 
farmers from Virginia had settled along the coast of Albemarle 
Sound. Ten years later (1663) these settlements were by di¬ 
rection of the proprietor formed into a colony. This was the 
beginning of North Carolina. In 1670 the Carolina proprietor 
sent over two ship-loads of emigrants from England, who 
settled on the west bank of the Ashley river near the sea, and 
named the settlement Charles Town.* Ten years later they 
crossed the peninsula and laid the foundations of the present 
city of Charleston. This was the beginning of South Carolina. 

Locke’s Grand Model. John Locke, a noted English phil¬ 
osopher, drew up for the colony what they considered the most 
perfect form of government that had yet been framed. The 
colony was divided into districts, and the people were to be 
divided into several classes. The governing or ruling body 
was to be selected from the upper class, while the lowest di¬ 
vision or common people were to be held as serfs, with no 
rights of their own. Neither they nor their children could ever 
rise above serfdom. The proprietors failed to fasten the 
“Grand Model,” as their scheme was called, upon the colonists, 
for the people were determined to make their own laws and to 
control their own labor. 

Separation of North and South Carolina. The colonists 
were too widely separated and the territory was too large to be 
governed as one colony. As a result, two assemblies were 
chosen (1712), one for the settlements in the north and one for 
those in the south. There were usually two governors. But 
there was constant trouble between the governors and the 
colonists. The resistance to the “Grand Model” schooled the 

* Named in honor of King Charles. Charles Town was afterwards changed to Charles¬ 
ton. 


96 


History of the United States. 


people to disobey the laws, so unjust and unsuited to the colony. 
Tired of troubles, the proprietors sold their rights to the Crown 
(1729). Two separate royal provinces, North Carolina and 
South Carolina, were then formed, and remained such to the 
Revolution. 

Social and Economic Life. The people of the two colonies 
presented quite a contrast in life and industry. Large planta¬ 
tions were the rule in South Carolina. Many of the wealthy 
land-owners, called planters, lived in their palatial mansions 
with their coat of arms on the windows, in the city of Charleston, 
which became a social center. At their command were servants, 
fine carriages and spirited horses. Their plantations were 
cared for by slaves, who in 1750 outnumbered the whites. Rice, 
tobacco, and at a later date, indigo, were the chief agricultural 
products of the colony. 

In North Carolina the farms were small, and slaves were 
few. There were no great cities. Life was mostly rural. 
Among the settlers were Scotch-Irish, German, Swiss, French, 
and English. The chief products were indigo, tar, lumber, 
turpentine, tobacco, and rice.* 

GEORGIA. 

James Oglethorpe and English Prisons. Of the thirteen 
original colonies, Georgia was the last formed. It was the 
spirit of philanthropy, or love of hu¬ 
manity, that led to the settlement of the 
last of the colonies. England at that 
time imprisoned men for trivial debts. 
Hundreds of poor persons were then 
confined in jails for this reason. Many 
of them were good, honest, and indus¬ 
trious, but through misfortune, sickness, 
or lack of work, they had contracted 
debts for which they were sent to jail. 
In prison they were treated with 
great cruelty. In many cases extra fines were assessed against 

* Rice was first brought from Madagascar, 1693. 



James Oglethorpe. 


The Period of Settlement. 


97 


them by corrupt jailers. In a short time their spirit and 
health were broken. On account of filth, neglect, and want of 
food, their condition was pitiable. Their misery touched the 
heart of James Oglethorpe, an English soldier, a member of 
Parliament, and a brave, able, benevolent and sympathetic 
man, and he resolved to help the prisoners. He secured some re¬ 
lief from Parliament, and then formed a plan to pay the debts 
of the most deserving and send them to America where they 
could begin life anew. 

Oglethorpe was a cavalier and royalist, and did not believe 
in the equality of men, but he did believe that it was the duty 
of the strong and fortunate to assist and protect the weak and 
the unfortunate. 

Settlement at Savannah, 1733. His grant included all 
territory- between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers from 
their mouth to their sources, and thence west to the Pacific. 
Thus Georgia became an English outpost against the Spaniards 
in their attempts to possess this territory under the name of 
Florida. Through the influence of Oglethorpe the equivalent 
of $175,000 was raised to carry on the work of settlement.* 
Free passage, free tools and free lands were offered to the pros¬ 
pective settlers, and thirty-five families of these, accompanied 
by Oglethorpe, made the first settlement at Savannah, 1733. 
Two years later, when Oglethorpe returned to the colony, two 
great men, John Wesley and his brother Charles, the founders 
of Methodism, came with him. 

Restrictions and Growth. The trustees, wishing to make 
a model colony, forbade the introduction of intoxicating liquors 
and slaves. Women were denied the right to hold land. Roman 
Catholics were excluded from the colony, and for twenty-one 
years the colonists were to have no voice in their own govern¬ 
ment. These restrictions, which kept settlers away, were 
finally abolished by the trustees, and then the colony grew 
rapidly. Many Germans and Scotch-Highlanders arrived. The 
industries were similar to those of South Carolina. The culti¬ 
vation of silk was attempted, but it proved unprofitable. 

* The House of Commons gave £16,000 and private subscriptions amounted to £6,000. 


98 


History of the United States. 


In 1752 the trustees surrendered their charter to the King and 
Georgia became a royal province. 

War with the Spaniards. When war broke out in 1739 
between Spain and England, Oglethorpe marched against the 
Spaniards in Florida and laid siege to St. Augustine, but was 
forced to abandon it. A few years later the Spaniards in turn 
sent a large fleet, carrying 3,000 men, from the West Indies and 
St. Augustine, against Georgia; but Oglethorpe, in command 
of only 800 men, by skillful strategy succeeded in driving the 
Spaniards away. 

The Thirteen Colonies. In a little more than a century 
(from 1606 to 1733) the English had planted thirteen colonies 
along the Atlantic coast, extending from the present state of 
Maine to Florida. Within their borders were hosts of honest, 
active, industrious, brave, and God-fearing people, who were 
soon to push across the mountains to people the valley beyond. 

Naming the colonies in the order in which they appear on the 
coast, we have: (1) New Hampshire, (2) Massachusetts (in¬ 
cluding Maine), (3) Rhode Island, (4) Connecticut, (5) New 
York, (6) New Jersey, (7) Pennsylvania, (8) Delaware, (9) 
Maryland, (10) Virginia, (11) North Carolina, (12) South 
Carolina, (13) Georgia. 


Suggestions for Review. 

To whom was Carolina granted? Tell how two colonies sprang up where 
one was intended. Who came to Albemarle? When? When was Charles¬ 
ton founded? What was the “Grand Model”? When did the Carolinas 
become royal provinces? What crops grew on the plantations of South 
Carolina? On the farms of North Carolina? Tell of Charleston as a 
social center. 

Who was Oglethorpe? What grant of land was given him by the king? 
What were Oglethorpe’s aims? What city was founded? When? Why 
were liquor and slaves forbidden? Why did Oglethorpe surrender his 
charter? When did Georgia become a royal colony? Why did the 
Spaniards trouble the colonists? 

Tell something of the following named persons, places, and dates: 
Lord Clarendon, James Oglethorpe; Albemarle, Charleston, Savannah; 
1650, 1670, 1729, 1732. 


The Period of Settlement 


99 


TABLE OF COLONIES. 


Name 

By Whom Founded 

People 

Date 

Place 

Virginia. 

Massachusetts: 

London Company. 

English.... 

1607 

Jamestown. 

(a) Plymouth.. 

Separatists. 

English.... 

1620 

Plymouth. 

( b ) Mass. Bay. 

Puritans. 

English.... 

1628 

Salem. 

(c) Maine. 

Gorges and Mason. 

English. . . . 
English.... 

1626 

Pemaquid. 

Saybrook. 

Connecticut. 

Winthrop*. 

1635 

(a) Hartford. . . 

Emigrants from Mass.. . 

English.... 

1636 

Hartford. 

( b ) New Haven 

Davenport. 

English.... 

1638 

New Haven. 

Maryland. 

Lord Baltimore. 

English.... 
English. . . . 

1634 

St. Mary’s. 
Providence. 

Rhode Island.... 

Roger Williams. 

1636 

North Carolina... 

Eight Nobles. 

English. . . . 

1663 

Albemarle. 

South Carolina.. . 

Eight Nobles. 

English. . . . 

1670 

Charleston. 

New Vork . 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

1623 

Manhattan Jsland. 

New Hampshire.. 

Georges and Mason. 

English. . . . 

1623 

Dover. 

New Jersey. 

Berkeley and Carteret... 

English. . . . 

1665 

Elizabethtown. 

Pennsylvania. . . . 

William Penn. 

English. . . . 

1682 

Philadelphia. 

T~)ol aware 

Swedes. 

Swedes. 

1638 

Christiana. 

Georgia. 

Oglethorpe. 

English. . . . 

17744 

Savannah. 


* For Lords Say and Brooke. 












































CHAPTER VIII. 

GROWTH OF THE FRENCH POWER. 

French Objects and Scope of Territory. While the 
English were at work building colonies along the Atlantic, 
almost within sound of the surf, from Maine to Georgia, the 
French penetrated the remote solitudes of the interior along 
the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi. Their 
explorations and settlements covered a vast area. Their chief 
objects were : first, to acquire a large amount of new territory, 
which would add to the glory of France; second, to carry on a 
profitable fur trade; third, to convert the Indians to Chris¬ 
tianity. The French did not build as well or as wisely as the 
English. The making of permanent homes was not one of the 
chief objects as with the English, and this was the greatest 
weakness of French colonization. Neither farming nor manu¬ 
facturing was carried on to any extent. These industries were 
necessary to a healthy growth in wealth and population. In 
the absence of them, the French settlements grew slowly, while 
the English grew rapidly. The two nations began to plant 
colonies about the same time, but at the end of a century there 
were at least fifteen persons in the English colonies for every 
one in the French territory. Quebec, their principal city, at 
the end of a hundred years was a mere village. 

Obstacles to Growth. Neither the climate nor the country 
along the St. Lawrence encouraged rapid growth. The winters 
were cold and long. The soil and seasons were not as well 
suited to general agriculture as along the coast. Then, too, 
it was more difficult to plant colonies far in the interior, along 
the St. Lawrence, about the Great Lakes, and down the Mis¬ 
sissippi. But hardy fur-traders, brave and patient priests, 
bold adventurers and soldiers took up the task of carrying the 

100 


Growth of the French Power. 101 

flag of France and the cross of the Church into those distant 
regions. 

The Jesuit Missionaries. Jesuit missionaries and fur- 
traders opened the way to French settlements. Boldly they 
went into primeval forests, facing danger, privation, and untold 
hardships. Freely they gave their strength, their labor, and 
some of them their lives to spread the Catholic faith and extend 
the domain of France. No suffering or difficulty was'great 
enough to stop their advance or check their zeal. Among these 
early French pioneers we may name only a few: Jean Nicolet, 
Allouez, Marquette, Joliet, Hennepin, and LaSalle. 

Relation with the Indians. Excepting the Iroquois of 
New York, the relation of the French with the Indians was 
quite friendly. Traders and missionaries shared the camp-fires 
and wigwams of the Indians, paddled in their birch canoes up 
rivers and over lakes, scoured the woods with them for game and 
furs; and hunters and traders sometimes led the dusky maidens 
to the marriage altar. The French did not destroy the hunt¬ 
ing-grounds to make way for the farmer as the English did, and 
so did not stir up the envy of the Indian. The Iroquois, how¬ 
ever, were the source of much trouble to the French. Their 
enmity, incurred by Champlain, kept the French from settling 
in New York, and for a time prevented explorations along Lakes 
Ontario and Erie. In order to avoid conflict with this dreaded 
tribe the French moved westward by way of the Ottawa river 
to carry on fur trade and exploration. 

Marquette and Joliet. Marquette and Joliet were the 
first of the French explorers to go beyond the region around 
the Great Lakes into the Mississippi valley. They were sent 
by Frontenac, Governor of Canada, in search of a great river, 
which the Indians called the “Father of Waters.” Joliet set 
out from Fort Frontenac and went by way of the Ottawa river 
to Mackinac, where he met Marquette (1672). Together with 
five companions in two canoes, they paddled up Green Bay, 
and ascended the Fox river to its source. Directed by Indian 
guides, they carried their canoes over the marshy portage to a 
branch of the Wisconsin river, following its course until they 


102 


History of the United States. 


floated on the shining bosom of the broad Mississippi (June, 
1673). Dnward they went until they had passed the Mis¬ 
souri, the Ohio, crossed the trail which DeSoto had made 
more than a century before, and finally landed at a point near 
the mouth of the Arkansas river. After resting a while with 
some Indians, they returned to Canada by way of the Mississippi 
and Illinois rivers and the Great Lakes. 

LaSalle.* Among the French explorers, none was so great 
as Robert de LaSalle. In 1679, with his companions he set 
out from Frontenac (now Kingston) on 
a voyage of exploration. Above Ni¬ 
agara Falls they built the first ship that 
ever floated beyond the falls. In it 
they sailed through Lakes Erie, Huron, 
Michigan, and the St. Joseph river, 
then crossed the divide to the Kan¬ 
kakee and passed down the Kan¬ 
kakee and Illinois rivers to near the 
present site of Peoria. Here they built 
a fort called Crevecceur (Crav-ker, 
meaning heart-break). Leaving Tonty, 
his friend and companion, in charge of 
the fort, LaSalle returned to Canada for supplies. Father 
Hennepin, one of his party, while exploring along the Mississippi 
with two companions, was carried north by Sioux Indians. 
He explored the Mississippi as far as the Falls of St. Anthony, 
and, after some startling adventures, returned to Canada 
(1682). 

When LaSalle returned (1681) to the Illinois he found his 
fort in ruins. His cherished purpose was to seek an outlet 
to the sea. He would not fail while strength lasted. Again 
returning to Canada, he fitted out another expedition, which 
passed up the Great Lakes, the Chicago river, and down the 
Illinois and Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico (April 9, 1682). 
At the mouth of the river he raised a great wooden cross, on 
which was fastened a metal plate bearing the arms of France. 



* Robert Cavalier, known as LaSalle. 



Growth of the French Power. 


103 


He took possession of the entire country drained by the Missis¬ 
sippi and its tributaries, for the King of France, Louis XIV., 
in whose honor he named it Louisiana. On the way back to 



Canada he built Fort St. Louis, at a place called Starved Rock, 
on the Illinois river, near the present site of Ottawa. 

The great explorer met a tragic death a few years later. 
Having sailed from France with the hope of planting a colony 
on the lower Mississippi river, he missed its mouth and landed 
in Texas, near Matagorda Bay, and made a settlement, which 









104 


History of the United States . 


ended in disaster. While attempting to reach Canada, LaSalle 
was treacherously shot by some of his own followers. 

French Claims.* At the close of the seventeenth century 
the French laid claim to : 

1. Acadia, which included Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and 
part of Maine. 

2. Canada, or the territory drained by the St. Lawrence and 
the Great Lakes. 

3. Louisiana, which then included all the land drained by the 
Mississippi river and its tributaries. 



Territorial Possessions from 1755-1763. 


But the English also claimed much of this territory. The 
charters of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, Carolina, 
and Georgia gave them lands extending from “sea to sea.” 
It was evident that a bitter struggle would take place before 

* By the end of the seventeenth century the French forts and settlements were as 
follows: Quebec, 1608; Montreal, 1642; Ft. Richelieu, 1642; Ft. Frontenac, 1673; St. 
Ignace, 1670; Sault St. Marie, 1641; Ft. Mackinac, 1641; Ft. La Honton, 1680; La 
Pointe Mission, 1666; Ft. St. Joseph, 1679; Ft. St. Louis, 1682; Ft. Crevecoeur, 1680; 
Cahokia, 1700; Ft. Kaskaskia, 1695; Ft. Prudhomme, 1682; Ft. St. Louis, 1684, on 
Matagorda Bay (Texas). 

















Growth of the French Power. 


105 


the two nations could settle these conflicting claims. The 
trouble began in 1689 and ended in 1763. During this time 
the colonists went to war four times. These are called the 
Inter-Colonial Wars, or the struggle between the French and 
the English for the soil of North America. They are called: 

1. King William’s War, 1689-1697. 

2. Queen Anne’s War, 1702-1713. 

3. King George’s War, 1744-1748. 

4. The French and Indian War, 1754-1763. 


Suggestions for Review. 

What were the chief objects of the French in making settlements? 
What was their greatest weakness in planting colonies? Who were the 
Jesuits, and what did they do in America? Name four of them. How did 
the French treat the Indians? Who explored the Mississippi valley? 
What was LaSalle’s great work? What was the extent of Louisiana? 
What territories did the French claim? What four wars followed? 

Tell something of the following named persons, places, and date: 
Marquette, Joliet, LaSalle; Quebec, Montreal, Ft. Frontenac; 1682. 


CHAPTER IX. 


THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN 

AMERICA. 

King William’s War, 1689-1697. — Cause. The first of 
the series of conflicts between the French and English broke out 
in 1689, when James II. of England was driven from his throne, 



A Thrilling Adventure with the Indians. 

The history of colonial life abounds with thrilling Indian adventures, bloody mas¬ 
sacres, and -narrow escapes. One of these is the story of the Dustin family. In March, 
1697, when Haverhill was attacked by the Indians, Mr. Dustin succeeded in making a 
safe retreat with seven of his children, but his wife, who was unable to escape with them, 
after seeing her infant killed and her house set on fire, was taken into captivity. March¬ 
ing many days through the forest, sleeping on the wet ground, they finally reached an 
island in Merrimac, the home of the leader of the tribe. Here she planned revenge and 
escape: One night, while her captors were asleep, aided by an English lad who had been 
captive for a year, she killed ten of the Indians, took their scalps, got in a canoe, and with 
her child companion reached Haverhill in safety. The General Court awarded each of 
them $250 for their deed. 


106 





The Struggle for Supremacy in America. 107 

and his nephew, William of Orange, succeeded him. The King 
of France sided with James, and tried to restore him to the 
throne. War followed between France and England, and soon 
extended to the colonies in America. 

Events. Frontenac, Governor of Canada, planned a series 
of attacks on the settlements in New York and New England. 
His troops were composed of French and many Indians, who 
were hostile to the English. Their methods of warfare were 
of the Indian type—to fall upon the unsuspecting inhabitants 
by stealth, and in the midnight hour burn their towns and 
murder the inhabitants, though they sometimes carried women 
and children into captivity or slavery. Dover, Salmon Falls, 
and Exeter (New Hampshire), Schenectady (New York), 
and Haverhill (Massachusetts), were laid in ashes, and most 
of the people killed. All along the border there were mid¬ 
night attacks, massacres, and frightful scenes of torture. 

For these outrages the English colonies retaliated by an 
invasion of Canada. The French at this time had three strong¬ 
holds in America: Port Royal in Acadia, and Quebec and 
Montreal in Canada; Sir William Phipps, of Massachusetts, 
in command of a large fleet, captured Port Royal. An attempt 
to capture Quebec and Montreal ended in failure. England 
and France signed a treaty of peace (1697), at Ryswick, Hol¬ 
land. This also brought peace in America. Both nations 
were to hold the same territory they had before the war began. 

Queen Anne’s War, 1702-1713. Louis XIV. of France 
placed his grandson on the throne of Spain, contrary to an 
agreement with England, and favored a son of James II. for 
King of England instead of Queen Anne. This again brought 
on a war between England and France, which soon was taken 
up by the colonies in America. In Europe the war was called 
the War of the Spanish Succession; in America it was called 
Queen Anne’s War. The English colonists had to contend not 
only with the French on the north, but also with the Spaniards 
on the south. The French and Indians repeated the same 
frightful acts of massacre as in the previous war. Wells, Saco, 
Deerfield and Haverhill were raided. (The Iroquois were under 


108 History of the United States. 

a pledge of neutrality to the French, but their presence in New 
York shielded the settlers along the border.) The English re¬ 
taliated. After three attempts they captured Port Royal, 
Acadia, but an expedition against Montreal failed. 

In the south the English attacked St. Augustine and the 
Spaniards attempted to capture Charleston. Neither succeeded. 
The war was closed by the treaty of Utrecht (1713). Acadia, 
Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay territory were ceded to 
England. 

Development of French Possessions. After the treaty 
of Utrecht the colonies were blessed with a period of thirty years 
of peace. During this time the French busied themselves in 
fortifying their positions along the St. Lawrence and in settling 
the Mississippi valley. About $5,000,000 was spent in fortify¬ 
ing Louisburg, Cape Breton Island, which stood guard over the 
entrance to the St. Lawrence river. Fort Detroit was built 
(1701), Fort Niagara (1726), Fort Vincennes (1735), and in 
1731 the French entered the colony of New York and built 
Crown Point. 

The first settlement in the lower Mississippi region was made 
by Iberville (1699), at Biloxi. In 1702 French headquarters in 
the south were moved from Biloxi to Mobile. The Spaniards 
made a settlement (1699) at Pensacola, not far from Mobile, 
but, as at this time the French and Spanish were the common foe 
of the English, there was no armed conflict between the two. 
They agreed that the Perdido river should be the boundary 
between Mobile and Pensacola. 

John Law. A gigantic scheme for settlement was formed 
by John Law, an energetic Scotchman. He organized a com¬ 
pany and secured from the French crown the right to establish 
a colony in the Louisiana territory. In 1718 his company 
founded New Orleans, which four years later became the capital 
of Louisiana. Great plans were made to plant agricultural 
colonies and gather riches from imaginary mines. Some per¬ 
manent good resulted in the way of settlement, but the com¬ 
pany failed. Before 1750 the French flag waved over more than 
sixty forts between Quebec and New Orleans. But the great 


The Struggle for Supremacy in America. 


109 


weakness of the French settlements lay in the fact that a small 
population was scattered over a vast extent of territory. 

King George’s War, 1744-1748. The question of who 
should rule over Austria started another war in Europe. Eng¬ 
land and France took different sides. The colonists again 
took up arms. The border settlements again suffered from 
the deadly raids of French and Indians. The English fitted out 
a fleet of fourteen armed ships and one hundred transports, 
carrying 4,000 New England troops, to capture Louisburg. 
After a siege of six weeks the fortress, thought to be impreg¬ 
nable, surrendered to the English, June 17, 1745. But at the 
close of the war Louisburg was again restored to the French, 
by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748. 

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, 1754-1763. 

Causes. The principal cause of the French and Indian 
War was the conflicting claims to territory by the French and 
English. The English claimed all the territory from “sea to 
sea,” which overlapped the French claim to the Mississippi 
valley. So long as the French were confined to the region along 
the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, and the English to the 
region east of the mountains, their immediate interests did not 
conflict. But when the English began to cross the mountains 
to occupy the fertile valleys beyond, and the French moved to 
occupy the same regions, trouble began. The two nations 
actually came face to face on lands which, before, they had only 
claimed. The colonists had already been embittered by the 
previous wars in America. This hatred was intensified by the 
rivalry betweqn England and France in Europe. Neither side 
would retreat. Each prepared to hold its ground by force of 
arms, and to carry on a life-and-death struggle for the posses¬ 
sion of North America. The English had a decided advantage. 
At this time the English colonies had a population of over 
1,000,000, while the French settlements contained only about 
80,000. 

The Ohio Company and French Activity. In 1748 a 
number of prominent Virginians and a wealthy London mer- 


110 


History of the United States. 


chant formed a company called the Ohio Company, whose 
purpose was to engage in fur trade and settle new lands. They 
secured a grant of 500,000 acres lying along the Ohio between 
the Monongahela and the Kanawha rivers. Christopher Gist, 
an experienced guide, was sent to explore the region. The 
French at the same time took active measures to strengthen 
their claims. For this purpose the governor of Canada sent 
Celoron de Bienville (1749) with a band of men down the 
Allegheny and the Ohio as far as the Miami river. At the 
mouths of several streams, they nailed on trees tin plates 
bearing the arms of France, and buried lead plates in the ground. 
On the plates were inscriptions, claiming the country drained 
by the Ohio and all its tributaries. The French followed this 
by building a line of forts along the same route, at Presque Isle 
(now Erie), Fort Le Bceuf, and Fort Venango. 

George Washington Enters Public Service. The English 
became thoroughly alarmed at the progress of the French. 
Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, who was interested in the 
Ohio Company, sent a messenger (1753) to inform the French 
commandant at Fort Le Bceuf that they were trespassing on 
English property, and that they must withdraw from the 
territory. This messenger was George Washington, a young 
man of twenty-one, a practical surveyor and adjutant-general 
of the Virginia militia. With him was Christopher Gist as 
guide. The perilous journey of 300 miles was made with dis¬ 
patch. The message was delivered. The French commandant 
received Washington kindly, but his answer to Governor Din¬ 
widdie plainly meant that, if the English got the land, they 
would have to come and take it. 

Fort Duquesne and Fort Necessity. Without delay Din¬ 
widdie sent a party of men under Captain Trent to build a log 
fort where the Allegheny and the Monongahela unite to form 
the Ohio. Washington was to follow with an army of 300 men 
to hold the new fort. Before the work was completed a large 
party of French and Indians came from Le Bceuf, captured 
the English, destroyed the fort (April, 1754), and built a bet¬ 
ter one, which they named Fort Duquesne (Dii-kan'), after 


The Struggle for Supremacy in America. Ill 

the Governor of Canada. Washington defeated a party of the 
French on the way to Fort Duquesne; but when the French 
advanced in force, he fell 
back to Great Meadows, 
where he hastily threw up 
breastworks which he called 
Fort Necessity. Here he 
was defeated by a large 
force of French and Indians 
and compelled to surrender, 

July 4, 1754, with permis¬ 
sion to return with his 
troops to Virginia. 

These were the first scenes 
of the' French and Indian 
War, or the beginning of the 
struggle that was to decide 
which nation should rule 
in America. Both sides 
hurriedly prepared for war, 
both received aid from the 
mother country, and each 
sought to win aid from the Iroquois Indians. 

The Albany Plan of Union, 1754. Thus far there had been 
no united action by the colonies. Virginia alone had acted 
against the French. But the time had come when the colonies 
must act together for the common good, or all would suffer. 
For many years they had felt the importance of some form of 
union. 

Twenty-five delegates from seven colonies (New York, Penn¬ 
sylvania, Maryland, and New England) met at Albany, New 
York, to consider a plan of union for defense. Benjamin 
Franklin, of Pennsylvania, drew up a plan, the substance of 
which was adopted by the delegates. It was rejected, however, 
by the King because it gave too much power to the colonies, and 
rejected by the colonists because it gave too little power to 



French Forts and Braddock’s Defeat. 









112 History of the United States. 

them. The delegates succeeded in renewing an alliance with the 
Iroquois Indians. 

Though the outward forms of union had failed, the discussion 
of the subject helped to cement a union in spirit and sentiment. 

Plan of the War. General Braddock came to America to 
take commancl of the English forces. At a conference of the 
governors of the colonies held at Alexandria, Virginia, plans 
were formed to push the war along four different routes: 

1. Braddock was to capture Fort Duquesne. 2. Sir William 
Johnson was to take Crown Point. 3. An expedition was to 
subdue Louisburg and Acadia and open the St. Lawrence. 4. 
An army was to go up the Mohawk valley and capture Niagara, 
“the gateway to the West.” 

Braddock’s Defeat. Braddock set out from Alexandria 
with a force of 1,200 British and some Virginia troops. Wash¬ 
ington was on his staff. The army followed the Potomac to 
Fort Cumberland, and marched thence toward Fort Duquesne 
over winding routes, through narrow defiles, by slender columns. 
Axemen often went ahead to open the way. Braddock, while 
cautious, was arrogant, conceited, and self-willed. He would 
not heed the advice of others. He believed his varied experience 
in Europe fitted him to perform any military task. But he 
knew nothing of Indians and Indian methods of fighting. When 
within a few miles of Fort Duquesne (July 9, 1755), Braddock 
suddenly met the enemy. From behind bush, rock and tree 
came the deadly fire of the French and Indian allies. Braddock 
formed his men into columns, where they were easily shot down 
by the enemy. The English fought bravely, but their fire was 
directed at a hidden foe. Their ranks thinned. Braddock fell, 
mortally wounded, after five horses had been shot under him. 
Most of the officers were killed or wounded. Washington 
seemed to bear a charmed life. Two horses were shot under 
him and four bullets pierced his clothes, but he escaped unhurt. 
With his Virginia troops, fighting Indian fashion, he covered 
the retreat of the shattered army, which finally went to Phila¬ 
delphia. The Indians reaped a rich harvest of scalps and 
booty of rifles, laced red-coats, military boots, and cockades of 


The Struggle for Supremacy in America. 113 

British officers who were killed. The entire western border 
was now open to the fierce raids of the heartless savages. 

The Acadians. Acadia had continued a British province 
ever since it was taken from the French during Queen Anne’s 
War. But its people were largely French in origin, speech, and 
thought. At the outbreak of the French and Indian war their 
sympathies were with the French cause. Some of the men 
had secretly joined the French army. The English feared the 
Acadians might cause trouble, so they sent a fleet from Boston 
to the Bay of Fundy to take possession of the country. Several 
thousand of the French inhabitants were driven on board the 
ships at the point of the bayonet. Their property was confis¬ 
cated and they were scattered, distressed and helpless, among 
the English colonies from Maine to Georgia. Many of the 
exiles suffered great hardships, and some never again found rel¬ 
atives and former friends. 

Other Expeditions. The expedition against Fort Niagara, 
led by Governor Shirley, ended in failure. He went from 
Albany to Oswego. Here news of Braddock’s defeat, contrary 
winds, and tempests, caused Shirley to abandon the proposed 
voyage to Fort Niagara, but he left a garrison at Oswego. The 
expedition against Crown Point was partially successful. Crown 
Point was not taken, but the French were defeated at Fort 
Edward. 

War Declared. These events had taken place in America 
before war was declared in Europe between England and 
France. In 1756 England formally declared war. Montcalm, 
one of the ablest of French generals, was sent to America. 
He captured Oswego, won over more Indian allies, built Fort 
Ticonderoga, and captured Fort William Henry (1757). For 
two-years the French steadily gained at the expense of the 
English losses. But in the fall of 1757 William Pitt, one of 
England’s great statesmen, and a warm friend of the colonies, 
took charge of affairs. His wisdom and energy imparted new 
life to the war, and soon the tide turned from defeat to victory. 

Capture of Forts Duquesne and Niagara. In 1758 
General Forbes led a large force against Fort Duquesne. Colonel 


114 


History of the United States. 


George Washington led the advance with a body of Virginia 
troops. As they approached, the French abandoned the fort 
and set fire to it. The English took possession, and the name 
Fort Duquesne was changed to Fort Pitt, in honor of England’s 
great minister, William Pitt. The same year Louisburg and 
Fort Frontenac were captured by the English, but an attack on 
Ticonderoga was repulsed with heavy loss to the English. 
The next year, however, Ticonderoga and Crown Point were 
both abandoned when General Amherst approached with a 
large army: Fort Niagara also surrendered after a siege of 
three weeks. Total defeat stared the French in the face. The 
surrender of Duquesne and Niagara shut them off from the 
Ohio, and the surrender of Louisburg cut them off from the 
sea. The next movement of the English was to penetrate 
Canada and capture Quebec. 

Capture of Quebec. Quebec was the metropolis of the 
French possessions. Strongly fortified and thought to be im¬ 
pregnable, the city stood on a high hill, surrounded by steep 
slopes or rocky cliffs, which end abruptly at the St. Lawrence 
river on one side and the St. Charles on the other side. To 
General Wolfe was assigned the task of taking the city. Un¬ 
known to the French, he led his men up the rocky cliffs in the 
dead of night, and at sunrise deployed his army on the Plains 
of Abraham, ready to give battle. The French, under the 
gallant Montcalm, came forth to meet them. Here was fought, 
September 13, 1759, the decisive battle of the war. The French 
were defeated, Quebec fell, and with it the last hope of the 
French to possess America. Both Wolfe and Montcalm were 
mortally wounded. As Wolfe was carried from the field, hear¬ 
ing the shouts of victory, he said, “God be praised! I shall die 
in peace.” When Montcalm was told that he had but a short 
time to live, he said, “So much the better; I shall not live to 
see the surrender of Quebec.” 

The destruction of the French power in America was com¬ 
pleted by the capture of Montreal in 1760, but in Europe the 
war continued until 1763. 

The Treaty of Paris, 1763, and Results of the War. The 


The Struggle for Supremacy in America. 


115 


treaty of peace was signed at Paris, 1763. The ambitions of 
France vanished like a dream. She gave up all her possessions 
in America except two small islands (Miquelon and St. Pierre) 
off the coast of Newfoundland, which she was permitted to 
keep, on which to dry fish. 

1. To England she gave Canada and all her possessions (ex¬ 
cepting New Orleans) east of the Mississippi river. 

2. To Spain she gave New Orleans, and all her possessions 
west of the Mississippi in exchange for aid which Spain had 
given France. 

3. Spain ceded Florida to England in exchange for Havana 
and Manila, which England had taken from Spain while at 
war with England. 



These were great territorial changes—a turning-point in 
modern history. The Latin race gave way to the Teutonic, 
which made possible the growth of the ideas, laws, customs 
and liberties of the English people. There were other results. 
The war taught the colonists self-confidence. The destruction 
of the French power freed the colonists from the danger of 















116 History of the United States. 

French invasion and made them less dependent on England. 
When soldiers from different colonies fought side by side, they 
developed broader views and kindlier feelings, which strength¬ 
ened the spirit of unity in the colonies. The war served also 
as a school for military training, which was of great value to the 
colonies a few years later in their war for independence. 

Pontiac’s Conspiracy, 1763. Regarding the English as a 
more dangerous foe, the Indians disliked the transfer of Canada 
from France to England. They had seen the colonies along 
the coast fill up with white men, and viewed with alarm the 
probable destruction of their hunting-grounds in thfc West. 
Pontiac, an able Ottawa chief, formed a league or conspiracy 
of a number of tribes to capture all forts and destroy all settle¬ 
ments west of the mountains, and thus hold back the tide of 
English invasion. In 1763, without warning, they began their 
deadly work. Hundreds of the settlers were massacred, thou¬ 
sands fled from the outlying settlements, and most of the western 
forts were captured. After two years of bloody war the Indians 
were defeated, Pontiac was killed by an Indian, and peace was 
restored. 

New Provinces. The new territory of the continent ac¬ 
quired by the war was divided by the King into three provinces : 
Quebec, East Florida, and West Florida. 

Proclamation Line and Indian Country. The ink used 
in signing the treaty of peace was hardly dry before the King 
issued a proclamation (October, 1763) which restricted the 
thirteen colonies to the territory east of the Appalachian Moun¬ 
tains, for they were ordered not to issue grants or patents “for 
lands beyond the heads or sources of any rivers which fall into 
the Atlantic Ocean from the west or northwest.” The country 
west of the crest of the mountains was set apart for the Indians, 
and became known as the Indian Country. 

East Florida and West Florida. The territory given up 
by Spain was divided into East Florida and West Florida. 
West Florida extended from the Mississippi river to the Chatta¬ 
hoochee and Apalachicola rivers, south of a parallel drawn 
through the mouth of the Yazoo river. East Florida included 


The Struggle for Supremacy in America. 


117 



Proclamation Line, Indian Country, Province of Quebec, and the Floridas. 


the limits of the present state as far west as the Apalachicola 
river. 

The Quebec Act. The province of Quebec lay north of 
New York (parallel 45) and New England. But in 1774, by 
the Quebec Act, the province was enlarged to include the Hud¬ 
son Bay territory and all land west!# the mountain-crest, south 
of the Ohio river and west of the Mississippi. The Act allowed 
religious toleration, thus securing the loyalty of the French 
Canadians during the crisis 1§6 the American Revolution. 

The policy of the British government was somewhat fitful. 




















118 


History of the United States. 


At first it gave grants extending “from sea to sea.” It en¬ 
couraged the Ohio Company to make settlements west of the 
mountains, but in 1763 it prohibited settlement west of the 
mountains, and in 1774, by the Quebec Act, the boundary of 
Canada was extended southward to the Ohio river, embracing 
land claimed by four English colonies. 

This plan of limiting the colonies to the territory east of the 
mountain-crest would weaken the growing importance of the 
stronger colonies, and the territory west of the mountains could 
be more easily broken up into new and smaller colonies when the 
time came to form them. The government acted on the 
theory that a number of small colonies could be more easily 
managed than a few large ones. 


Suggestions for Review. 

What was the cause of King William’s War? Of Queen Anne’s War? 
Of King George’s War? Name the treaty that closed each war, giving the 
terms of each. Was Europe interested in these wars? 

What were the causes of the French and Indian War? What was the 
Ohio Company? What claims did the French have to the region in 
dispute? What was Washington’s first public service? Who was sent 
to build a fort on the Ohio? Why? What was Franklin’s plan of union? 
Why rejected? Tell of Braddock’s defeat. Of the Acadians. What treaty 
closed the war? Date? What were the terms of the treaty? What changes 
were made in the map of America? What Indian war followed? What 
four provinces were organized under English authority? What was the 
Proclamation Line? The Quebec Act? How did the colonies like Eng¬ 
land’s plan? 

Tell something of the following named persons, places, and dates: 
Christopher Gist, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Wolfe, Mont¬ 
calm, Pitt; Fort Duquesne, Quebec; 1682, 1702, 1754, 1763. 

Color a map showing the territorial possession before and after the war. 


CHAPTER X. 

LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 

Constructing Homes. The first problem to be solved by 
the pioneer was that of providing shelter for himself and family. 
There was an abundance of timber, but there were no mills to 
convert the trees into lumber. A few took pattern from the 
Indian wigwams, and built temporary houses of plaited grass 
or rush mats, or of the skins of animals stretched over a frame¬ 
work of poles; but most of the hardy immigrants, armed with 
their trusty axes, marched boldly into the forest, felled trees 
and erected log cabins. The roof was usually of bark or thatch, 
but in some of the better cabins it was of clapboards, a rough 
sort of shingle, split or rived from some straight-grained wood 
with an instrument called a frow. The cracks betweemthe 
logs were “chinked” with pieces of wood, which were then 
backed with clay. The fireplace at one end of the cabin was 
usually a pen of logs lined with clay. It was large enough 
to take in logs of wood four or five feet long, and during the 
long, cold winters large quantities of fuel were consumed. 
The chimney was constructed of sticks and clay, though 
sometimes stone fireplaces and chimneys were built. 

Nails, iron hinges and locks were scarce, and could be ob¬ 
tained only at considerable expense, hence most of the early 
dwellings were built without them. The rows of clapboards 
on the roof were held in place by poles, fastened at each end by 
wooden pins; wooden or leather hinges were used to swing the 
door, and a wooden latch, raised from the outside by pulling a 
string, was the only fastening. To prevent prowlers or un¬ 
welcome visitors from entering the cabin, the “latch-string” 
was pulled inside at night and thus the door was locked. This 
custom gave rise to the expression, “The latch-string is always 

119 


120 History of the United States. 

out,” to signify that one would be a welcome visitor at any 
time. 

The windows of the first houses were small. Oiled paper was 
generally used to admit the light, but some houses were without 
windows. Long after the towns and cities had window-glass 
the frontier settlements used the oiled paper for admitting 
light, and heavy wooden shutters for protection. 

The floor of the rude dwelling was usually nothing more 
than “Mother Earth.” A “puncheon” floor* was an indica¬ 
tion of aristocratic tenden¬ 
cies and was regarded as a 
luxury. The rude log cabin 
was the home not only of the 
early colonists, but also of 
the pioneers of a later date, 
as the line of settlement 
moved westward across the 
country. It was in such a 
humble cabin of one room 
that Abraham Lincoln was 
born. 

Furniture and Cooking Utensils. Having erected the 
cabin, the next problem was to provide it with furniture. A 
few instances are recorded where the house was built around a 
large stump, which was smoothed off on top, thus making a firm, 
substantial table. Packing-boxes in which goods had been 
shipped from England were carefully preserved and the boards 
were used for tables and shelves, the latter being supported on 
pins driven into holes bored in the logs that formed the cabin 
walls. The frow was again called into use where boards could 
not be found, and a thin puncheon, smoothed as well as the 
circumstances and the tools of the pioneer would permit, was 
prepared for a table-board. This was supported by trestles, 
and when not in actual use could be set in the end of the cabin 
out of the way. 

* A “puncheon” floor was made of split logs, hewed flat with the adz or broad-ax. 



The Lincoln Cabin. 

The cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was 
born is a fair type of the cabin of colonial days. 


Life in the Colonies. 


m 


A few.chairs were brought from the old country, but in many 
homes the seats were rude benches formed by driving pins into 
short sections of split trees and smoothing the flat side. Cook¬ 
ing-stoves were unknown. Across the fireplace was a “ lug- 
pole” or “back-bar” of iron, or more frequently of some green 
wood which would char slowly, and upon this lug-pole were 
hooks of different lengths for holding pots and kettles in which 
food was cooked. The iron swinging crane did not come into 
use until about the middle of the eighteenth century. Some 
of the kettles were of brass, holding ten or fifteen gallons each. 
Iron pots frequently weighed as much as forty pounds. Often 
several kinds of vegetables and a generous piece of meat were 
boiled in one of these pots at the same time, giving rise to the 
phrase, “New England boiled dinner.” Bread was baked in a 
long-handled iron skillet with three legs and an iron lid. After 
the dough was placed in the skillet and the skillet was set upon 
a bed of hot coals, the iron lid was covered with coals so that the 
bread would bake from above and below. 

After the meal was cooked it was eaten from wooden or pewter 
plates, or from wooden trenchers. Spoons of wood or pewter 
were used to serve the food, which was eaten without forks, 
now so common in every household, 
was brought over for Governor John 
Winthrop, in 1633, but forks did not 
come into general use until some 
thirty or forty years later. 

Methods of Starting Fire. One 
great care of the household was to 
preserve fire. Matches were not in¬ 
vented until about 1827. If the 
fire was allowed to go out, some one 
of the family was sent to the nearest 
neighbor with a shovel or covered 
pan for a supply of live coals for re¬ 
lighting it. When the nearest neighbor was too far away for 
this, the flint and steel were brought into use. Tinder, made 
from worn-out cotton and linen garments, was carefully pre- 


The first fork in America 



Bringing Live Coals to Start 
the Fire. 


122 


History of the United States. 


served in a tinder-box. By striking a spark with the flint and 
steel and allowing it to catch in the tinder, fire could be obtained. 
Patience and perseverance were necessary in applying this 
method, half an hour or more often being consumed in the efforts 
to renew the fire. Another way of starting a fire was to flash a 
little powder in the pan of an old-fashioned flint-lock gun, a 
twist of tow or a bunch of tinder being held close to the pan, to 
be ignited by the flash. Often several attempts were necessary 
before the tow or tinder would “ catch.” Hence, it will be 
seen that the preservation of fire on the premises was an im¬ 
portant matter. 

Stoves were not introduced until about 1700, the Pennsylvania 
Germans being the first to use them. They were of various 
shapes and kinds; a curious one was made of sheet metal in the 
shape of a box, with two sides and an end within the house and 



Kitchen Fireplace. 


the other end, having the stove door, outside the house. When 
the fire was to be made or fed, it was necessary to go out of 
doors to look after it. A great improvement was made in 1744 
in methods of heating when Benjamin Franklin invented a new 
stove, which received the name of the “New Pennsylvania 
Fireplace.” No dwelling, however, was complete without the 
good old-fashioned fireplace so common in all the colonies. 

“Tallow Dips,” Lamps and Lights. In the modern city, 















Life in the Colonies. 


123 


to light a room it is only necessary to turn an electric switch 
or strike a match and apply it to a gas-jet. In the colonial 
days no such convenience was known. In some localities, 
where pine timber was plentiful, the “fat” knots were gathered 
from the forest and laid up for lighting purposes during the 
winter. When thrown on the fire these knots, being full of 
pitch, would blaze up and give sufficient light to enable one to 
attend to ordinary duties about the room. Next in order was 
the “tallow dip” or tallow candle. The “dip” was made by 
twisting wicks of loose-spun hemp, tow or cotton, suspending 
several of them from a slender rod and dipping them into a 
kettle of melted tallow. As soon as the tallow had cooled they 
were again dipped, the process being repeated until a sufficient 
amount of grease adhered to the wick to form a rude candle. 
It was not a satisfactory manner of lighting when compared 
with modern methods, but it was often the best to be had. 
Candles were made by drawing wicks through tin cylinders 
called candle-moulds and filling the ihoulds with hot tallow, 
which was allowed to cool. These candles were firmer and better 
than the “dips.” Wax candles were made by pressing warm 
beeswax or bayberry wax around a wick by hand. Lamps 
for burning fish oil or whale oil were also used. These lamps 
were generally shallow dishes with a spout on one side. They 
were filled with the oil, and in this was placed a loosely twisted 
cotton wick, frequently made from a strip of old cotton cloth, 
which was allowed to extend a short distance from the spout. 
The end of this wick was then lighted, and while it emitted con¬ 
siderable smoke and an unpleasant odor, it gave light enough 
to enable one to read. 

Character of Food. The food supply was another problem 
that confronted the early settlers. Game was plentiful in the 
forests and the trusty rifle could be relied upon to furnish meat, 
but breadstuffs were harder to obtain. Wheat and other grains 
brought from Europe did not at first thrive well in the 
New World, and Indian corn or maize soon came to be relied 
upon as the chief source of bread. In the course of time, how¬ 
ever, wheat and rye were extensively grown and used. After 


124 History of the United States. 

the corn was raised it had to be ground into meal, and as mills 
had not yet been built, the Indian mortar was used. The 
mortar was made by hollowing out a block of hard wood or the 
stump of a tree. In this the corn was placed and pounded with 
a heavy block of wood called a pestle, until it was reduced to a 
coarse meal. Following the mortar came the hand-mill, made 
of two flat stones, the upper one of which was turned by hand. 
The first windmill was set up in Virginia, in 1621, and ten years 
later one was built at Watertown, Massachusetts. By the 
middle of the seventeenth century there were a number of 
water-mills in operation in the colonies. 

The “Whip-saw,” Sawmills, and Better Dwellings. 
Such were the modes of living of the early American colonists. 
As the hardy pioneers conquered the wilderness and cleared 
small tracts of land around their homes, they turned their at¬ 
tention to the construction of better dwellings. The first 
lumber was made with the “whip-saw.” A log was flattened 
on the top and bottom, and on the upper surface were drawn 
lines indicating the thickness of the proposed boards. The log 
was then mounted on a scaffold high enough to allow a man to 
stand beneath to pull the saw downward, another man standing 
on the top of the log to guide the saw and draw it up after each 
stroke. The process was a slow one, yet much of the first 
lumber was made in this fashion. The first sawmill operated 
by water-power was built at Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, 
in 1663, and it was the beginning of the great shipbuilding 
industry of New England. 

With the introduction of the sawmill and the increase of 
wealth and prosperity came a better class of houses. Frame 
buildings with wooden floors became common, and some of 
the richer class erected brick houses and provided them with 
glass windows instead of the oiled paper used in the first dwell¬ 
ings. Some of the wealthy planters erected spacious mansions. 
A good example of these is the home of George Washington, 
still preserved at Mount Vernon, on the banks of the Potomac; 
but still more beautiful and spacious is Sabin Hall, in Virginia, 
the home of one of the Carters. 


Life in the Colonies. 


125 



Sabin Hall, one op the Colonial Mansions. 

Clothing, and How it was Prepared. Each family 
brought from the old country a supply of clothing. As this 
supply wore out the question of providing new clothing pre¬ 
sented itself. Leggings and 
hunting-shirts of buckskin 
played an important part 
in the costume of the men, 
but this material was hardly 
suited to the women and 
children. Flax was culti¬ 
vated and sheep were 
raised to provide the raw 
materials for linen and 
woolen cloths. The fiber 
of the flax was separated 
from the straw by the use 
of the “ flax-brake / 1 the 
“swingling-knife” and the 
‘‘hetchel,” all hand proc- Flax-spinning. 

esses, after which it was spun into thread by the thrifty house¬ 
wife on the little foot-wheel, and woven into cloth on the hand 
loom. Wool was rolled into long strips by the hand cards— 



















126 


History of the United States. 


thin pieces of board, on one side of which were set wire teeth, 
slightly bent, forming a coarse brush. After the wool was 
“carded” it was spun into yarn on a larger wheel than that 
used for flax-spinning, the operator walking back and forth as 
she drew out the thread and then wound it up on a bobbin 
fastened to the rapidly revolving spindle. A good spinner 
could spin six “cuts” or six skeins of yarn a day, but in doing 
so would have to walk about twenty miles. Skins were tanned 
and shoes w^ere made in almost every household. Straw hats 
for summer wear were braided by hand, and in the winter 
home-made fur caps, fashioned from the skins of small animals, 
were the popular head-gear for men and boys, the women wear¬ 
ing sunbonnets in the summer and caps or shawls fastened over 
their heads in the winter. From the woolen yarn the women 
knitted hose and mittens, and from the linen cloth were made 
tablecloths, napkins, towels, sheets, and pillow-cases. After 
the cultivation of cotton became sufficiently important, cotton 
cloth took the place of linen to a large extent. 

In fact, in colonial days every farmhouse was a little factory 
that supplied the family with clothing, the household with 
much of the furniture and the farm with many crude imple¬ 
ments for agriculture. How different then from the present 
day, when the land is dotted over with large cotton and woolen 
mills, clothing factories, shoe factories, etc., and when every 
village and city has stores for the sale of almost everything 
worn or used by the human race. 

Social Distinctions. From the earliest settlement of 
America the population was divided into social classes, due in a 
great measure to the customs of the European countries from 
which they emigrated. While not many titled persons came 
to America, there were a few in each colony who were looked 
upon as social leaders. Slavery was introduced at an early 
date, and the slaves constituted the lowest social class. Next to 
them were the indentured white servants, many of whom were 
criminals, thrust upon the colonies by the mother country. 
Another class of bond servants were the redemptioners, who 
voluntarily sold themselves for a certain length of time in pay- 


Life in the Colonies. 


127 


ment of their passage across the ocean. Next above the in¬ 
dentured servants and redemptioners were the mechanics, 
small farmers, and retail merchants. The highest social class 
was composed of the ministers, lawyers, physicians, colonial 
officials, and rich planters, or—in New York—the patroons.. 
Marriage between persons of different social standing was 
opposed, especially by those of the upper classes. In some 
churches the people were seated according to their social rank, 
and it was not an uncommon thing for the poorer members of 
the congregation to remain outside the church until the rich 
planters and the professional men and their families were seated 
in their pews. With the advent of better houses, as above 
mentioned, class distinctions became more marked. Social 
standing was also shown in dress. The slaves wore very little 
clothing, which was usually made of the cheapest materials. 
The middle classes dressed somewhat better, while the members 
of the highest class appeared to make every effort to show their 
superiority in their wearing-apparel. The men powdered their 
hair, wore wigs, velvet coats, silk stockings, and carried gold 
and silver snuffboxes. The women, particularly on great oc¬ 
casions, wore silks, satins and velvets imported from London. 
But with the growth of the spirit of liberty, social distinctions 
were practically leveled, and the Declaration of Independence, 
which set forth the dogma “That all men are created equal, 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien¬ 
able rights, ” struck the final blow to social caste in this country. 

Means of Travel and Transportation. The early settle¬ 
ments were nearly always established near the seacoast or upon 
the banks of some river. This was done for convenience of 
communication. Roads had not yet been opened, and for 
some time the colonists passed from one settlement to another 
in their small sail-boats or canoes. Boats were either canoes 
made from birch bark or “dugouts” made by hollowing out 
logs for the reception of persons and parcels. These were from 
twenty to twenty-five feet long by two or three feet in width, 
and were propelled through the water with a broad paddle, 
which was used first on one side and then on the other, to keep 


History of the United States. 


128 

the canoe in its course. If a journey was to be made overland, 
it was usually done on foot or on horseback through the woods. 
The first roads were nothing more than routes “blazed” through 
the forests; that is, the bark was chopped off the trees at 
intervals along the proposed pathway, the “blazes” standing 
out clear and white in the shadows of the trees to guide the 
traveler. For fully half a century after the first colonies were 
established, the principal mode of land travel for any con¬ 
siderable distance was on horseback. As late as 1672 there 
were but six stage-coaches in New England, and only one 
private coach in Boston. Pack-horses were used to transport 
goods to the settlements in the interior until roads were opened 
and wheeled vehicles came into use. 

Conestoga Wagons and Stage-Coach Lines. Pennsyl¬ 
vania was one of the first of the colonies to use wagons. Con¬ 
sequently the roads there were among the best in the country 
in the early days, and it is said that during the Revolution 
nearly all the wagons and horses used by the colonial army 
came from Pennsylvania. These wagons, known as the “Con¬ 
estoga wagons,” came into general use about 1760. The first 



stage-coach was placed in operation between Philadelphia and 
New York in 1766. It was described as “the flying-machine, a 
good stage-wagon set on springs,” and under favorable con¬ 
ditions could make the trip of about ninety miles in two days. 






Life in the Colonies. 


no 


The next year a stage-coach line was opened between Boston 
and Providence. After the Revolution the people began to 
construct turnpikes, and the number of stage lines increased 
rapidly, until one could go almost anywhere by stage. Until 
the building of the turnpikes nearly all the carriages were two¬ 
wheeled vehicles, called chaises, or sulkies. Short journeys 
were frequently made in sedan chairs—strong, covered seats 
which were fastened to two long handles so that they could be 
carried by either two or four persons. This was a favorite 
mode of travel for persons of distinction. 

“The Wayside Inn.” With the building of the turnpike 
and the introduction of the stage-coach came the “wayside inn” 
or stage tavern, such houses being located at convenient inter¬ 
vals along the route. They were not only stopping-places for 
travelers, but also drinking-houses and places at which to 
gossip, to get the latest news and discuss religion and politics. 
Much of the history of the country centers about these taverns, 
where many political schemes had their origin. 

Education. Education commanded the attention of the 
colonists at an early date. As soon as dwellings had been 
erected a block-house was built for protection against Indian 
raids; then came the church, and after it the school-house. If 
the population of the settlement was sufficient, a regular teacher 
was employee!; if not, the minister often acted as teacher. 
This condition prevailed especially in the northern colonies; 
but in the South, where slave labor was employed more ex¬ 
tensively, the wealthy planters employed private tutors for 
their sons and daughters, and the poorer classes were given little 
or no opportunity to acquire an education. Public schools 
sprang up in Pennsylvania very early. In 1700 every county in 
New Jersey had a school maintained by taxation, and before 
the Revolution New England had a school for each town and a 
college for every colony. There was no public school system 
in Virginia before the Revolution, yet within this colony was 
founded the second college in America. Harvard College, in 
Massachusetts, was founded in 1636; William and Mary, in 
Virginia, in 1693; Yale, in Connecticut, in 1701; Brown, in 


130 


History of the United States. 


Rhode Island, in 1764; and Dartmouth, in New Hampshire, 
in 1769. The middle colonies were not much behind New 
England in establishing institutions of higher learning. Prince¬ 
ton College, in New Jersey, was founded in 1746; Kings (now 
Columbia), in New York, in 1754; the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, in 1755; and Rutgers College, in New Jersey, in 1770. 
William and Mary College, at Williamsburg, Virginia, founded 
in 1693, was the only institution of the kind in the southern 
colonies, and many of the young men of the South attended the 
northern colleges. 

Newspapers. The first printing in the colonies was done 
at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1639, and the first newspaper 
issued in America was named u Publick Occurrences ,” published 
by Benjamin Harris at Boston, September 25, 1690. It was 
condemned by the authorities for containing “reflections of a 
very high nature,” and its publication stopped. The first 
permanent newspaper was the Boston News-Letter , which made 
its appearance in 1704. It was soon followed by newspapers 
in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and some 
other cities. At the beginning of the Revolution every colony 
had one or more printing-presses. The first daily was the Packet , 
of Philadelphia, started in 1784. In those days the mails were 
carried by post-riders, who followed the roads where there were 
any, and at other times made their way along the forest trails. 
Newspapers were not permitted to go through the mails, 
but had to be carried by private arrangement. These early 
papers were small, poorly printed and poorly edited, con¬ 
taining little that would be called news at the present time. 
There was then no telegraph service for the hasty transmission 
of news, and the advertisements were chiefly for the recovery 
of slaves or indentured servants. 

Pastimes and Amusements. All that has been said above 
concerning colonial life relates to the busy side of that life. 
But the colonists had their recreations and pastimes as well as 
their toils and cares. The rifle was the constant companion of 
the pioneer. It helped to provide the family’s food and afforded 
protection against the Indians. The result was that the colo- 


Life in the Colonies. 


131 


nists became expert marksmen. Shooting-matches were there¬ 
fore common. A score-keeper was selected, and the one who 
hit the mark the most frequently in a given number of trials 
was declared the champion,—a proud distinction in those days 
when the American rifleman was at his best. There were also 
“training-days,” when the militia met for drill. Such oc¬ 
casions were general holidays. After the drill there were foot¬ 
races, wrestling-matches, and athletic contests of various kinds, 
the whole ending not infrequently with a shooting-match. 
Then again there were husking-bees, and sleighing and skating 
parties in the northern colonies, while farther south fox-hunting 
was a popular sport. Dancing was the principal indoor pleasure 
in the South. In the North the winter indoor pleasures were 
generally of a quiet character, and were conducted in front 
of the great fireplace. Frequently the women would combine 
labor with pleasure by engaging in spinning, sewing or quilting 
“bees.” Neighbors would gather to pass the long winter even¬ 
ings in social conversation, telling stories, propounding conun¬ 
drums or riddles, cracking nuts, eating apples, or taking part 
in some form of simple, wholesome amusement. 

Money of the Colonists. The early colonists brought but 
little money with them, and, as there were no gold or silver 
mines worked in the settlements, the supply of these metals 
was very limited. The only source from which coin could be 
obtained was through trade and shipping; but as imports 
were usually greater than exports, the movement of gold and 
silver was rather out of the colonies than into them, so the 
supply of money did not keep pace with the growth of popula¬ 
tion and commerce. The coins in use were chiefly Spanish, 
English, Portuguese, and Dutch, and were of different value in 
different colonies. 

In consequence of the scarcity of money, the colonists were 
compelled to resort to various devices to provide a medium of 
exchange. Much of the business in early times was by barter. 
Shells and wampum were sometimes used as substitutes for 
money. Later, certain staple commodities were by law de¬ 
clared to be legal tender in payment of debts. These in New 


13 2 


History of the United States. 



Front and Back of Pine-tree 
Shilling. 


England were chiefly corn, cattle, and furs; and in the South, 
tobacco and rice. Taxes were frequently paid* by taking prod¬ 
ucts to storehouses, maintained by 
the colonists, in which public prop¬ 
erty was placed. Tuition in college 
was paid in meat, live-stock, produce, 
etc. Records of Harvard College 
show that a student, who became 
president of the college,* settled his 
bill (1649) with “an old cow.” Massachusetts was the only 
colony that ever established a mint. In it were coined the 
famous pine-tree shillings and other small coins; but the mint 
was closed in 1684 by order of the King. 

Paper Money. It is not strange that the colonists began 
the use of paper money, or bills of credit as they were called, 
for they were mere promises on the part of the colonists to 
pay certain sums. These bills depreciated greatly. In some 
colonies a dollar in paper became worth only a few cents in 
exchange for coin. In the absence of something better, all the 
colonies except North Carolina made liberal use of paper 
money, f until Parliament finally passed a law forbidding them 
to issue any more of it,—an act which provoked great colonial 
opposition and which was one of the many measures on the part 
of England which caused the Revolution. 


RELIGION IN THE COLONIES. 

The Colonies Settled by Persons of Deep Religious Con¬ 
victions. Religion was a great factor in the making of our 
nation. The founders of the original colonies were for the most 
part men deeply moved by the religious motive. The Pilgrims 
who founded Plymouth Colony came to America to find re¬ 
ligious liberty. The germ of our nation is found in a remarkable 
document which they signed in the Mayflower’s cabin. It 
begins with the words, “In the name of God, Amen.” It may 

* It was Reverend John Rodgers, fifth president of Harvard, serving from 1682-1684. 

t Massachusetts first issued paper currency in 1690, to pay the soldiers who took part 
in the expedition against Louisburg in the French war. The other colonies followed her 
example, and in 1775 eleven of them were using this kind of money. 


Life in the Colonies. 


133 


well be called the forerunner of the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence. Rev. John Davenport, a Puritan minister, was leader 
of the colony that settled New Haven; Roger Williams, an¬ 
other minister, founded Rhode Island; William Penn, the 
Quaker, founded Pennsylvania; James Drummond, a Presby¬ 
terian minister, was the first governor of North Carolina; 
John and Charles Wesley the founders of Methodism, and 
George Whitefield, the most famous preacher of his day, were 
among the early settlers in Georgia. The Puritans settled 
New England; Dutch Calvinists, New York and New Jersey; 
Swedish Lutherans, Delaware; Quakers, Pennsylvania; Roman 
Catholics, Maryland; Episcopalians, Virginia; and French 
Huguenots, the Carolinas. 

The early settlers were mostly Protestants, and for the most 
part held those religious views which are known as Calvinism. 
They disliked the episcopal form of church government with 
its bishops. They thought it was too closely identified with 
monarchical government and the rule of kings. They were 
very rigid in their own ideas, and for a long time there was 
little of the religious tolerance that we enjoy today. The 
Puritans tried hard to keep the Baptists and Quakers out of 
New England, the Dutch did not want the Quakers in New 
York, and Governor Berkeley was determined that worship 
in Virginia should be conducted only by episcopal ministers 
and according to the rites of the Church of England. But in 
course of time a greater tolerance became manifest, and the 
various Christian bodies learned to allow to others the rights 
they claimed for themselves. In New England the Puritan 
churches and in Virginia the Episcopal churches were established 
by law, but later the church and state were separated forever. 

Influence of Ministers. The ministers, especially in New 
England, were the most highly educated men of their times, and 
exercised great influence upon public affairs. In New England 
the Election Day sermon was a great event. The ministers 
had much of the narrowness and bigotry of their times, but they 
encouraged schools and education and an intelligent citizenship. 
The early colleges of the country were all founded with a dis- 


134 


History of the United States . 


tinctly religious purpose, and were intended to provide an 
educated ministry and a Christian education to the young men 
of the colonies. The education of girls and women beyond the 
merest rudiments was not then thought of any consequence. 

Views on Practical Questions. The religious ideas of the 
colonial period demanded a very rigid keeping of the Sabbath, 
and punctual attendance upon church services. The church 
services were long and tiresome, the sermons sometimes being 
two hours long. The churches were not heated in the winter, 
but some of the worshippers carried foot-stoves filled with coals. 
In some of the colonies, if a man were not a church member he 
had no vote. The standard of morals insisted upon by the 
religious people of the period as a whole was high, yet many 
customs were practiced and many things accepted as a matter 
of course that now would not be tolerated. Lotteries are now 
forbidden by law, but then they were resorted to as a means of 
raising money for public purposes, even to build churches and 
colleges. Faneuil Hall in Boston was once rebuilt after a fire 
with money raised by a lottery. Drunkenness was frowned 
upon, yet there were few if any total abstainers. In the records 
of some of the old New England churches there are found bills 
allowed for liquors furnished the clergy at ordinations and in¬ 
stallations. The stocks, the 
pillory, the public whipping¬ 
post, and the public execution 
of criminals were then common 
and the religious people saw 
in them nothing to protest 
against. Many beliefs were 
held even by the intelligent 
and educated that would now 
be regarded as superstition. 
We must be careful not to 
In the Stocks. In the Pillory, underestimate the religious 
factor of the colonial period, and not to forget the impress of 
worth put by religion upon our institutions in their formative 
period. 






Life in the Colonies . 


135 


Suggestions for Review. 

What was the first problem to be solved by the pioneer? How were 
cabins built? What was the “latch-string”? Describe the furniture and 
cooking utensils of colonial days. Tell of the “New England boiled 
dinner.” How was fire kept? Started? What was the “New Penn¬ 
sylvania Fireplace”? What were “fat knots”? Tallow dips? What 
were the chief sources of food? What was the mortar? What was a 
whip-saw? Of what value was it? What was the flax-brake? Tell of 
the spinning-wheel. Give an account of the home industries. Tell of 
the different social classes—slaves, servants, planters. Tell of the routes 
of travel, means of travel, dugouts, Conestoga wagons. What are turn¬ 
pikes? What is meant by “wayside inn”? What progress was made in 
education during colonial days? Name some of the first colleges. Tell 
about the newspapers and transmission of news. Describe the amusements 
of the colonists. What kinds of money were used? Tell what influence 
religion had on building the colonies. 


CHAPTER XL 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

CAUSES AND EVENTS LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION. 

The Colonists. Most of the colonists were thorough Eng¬ 
lishmen. They were loyal to their country and proud of their 
origin. They had a great reverence for English ideas; for 
some, merely because they were English. English fashions 
were studiously copied. King George had no more devoted 
subjects than were those in America, and the triumph of Eng¬ 
land over France nowhere gave greater joy than in the American 
colonies. But these Americans cherished the Englishman’s 
ideals of right, justice, and liberty. In fact, it was because the 
enjoyment of these blessings was denied to them by their 
government that many had come to America from England. 
When the King refused his American subjects the rights of 
Englishmen there was trouble, strife, and then — the great 
American Revolution, which marks an epoch not only in the 
annals of America but in the history of the world. 

The English Colonial Policy. The colonies belonged to 
England, but the King and Parliament would not concede to 
them the same political and commercial rights as to England. 
This was a fatal mistake. It led to the passage of laws harmful 
to the colonists and beneficial to the English. This theory of 
colonial government, then common among the nations of 
Europe, gave England a temporary benefit, but finally resulted 
in disaster. In accord with this policy, the British government 
planned to give the people in England an advantage, by con¬ 
trolling the commerce and many industries of the colonies. To 
secure these ends a number of laws, a summary of which here 
follows, were passed: 


136 


The American Revolution. 


137 


LAWS REGULATING TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 

1. The Navigation Acts (see p. 59) required the colonists 
(with certain exceptions) to ship their goods only to English 
ports and in English or colonial vessels manned by English 
seamen. 

2. In 1673 restrictions were placed on trade between the 
colonies. 

3. In 1696 a commission was formed in England, called the 
Lords of the Board of Trade and Plantations. Its business was 
to look after the trade relations with the colonies, to make 
recommendations to colonial governors, and to recommend the 
veto or approval of laws made by the colonies. 

4. The next year (1697) courts of admiralty were established 
to try, without a jury, violators of the navigation laws. 

5. In 1699 Parliament passed a law prohibiting the colonists 
from shipping wool, yarn, woolen manufactures, or any kind of 
cloth from one colony to another, under penalty of a heavy fine. 

6. As furs were cheap and plentiful, the manufacturing of fur 
hats had become an important industry. At least 10,000 
beaver hats were annually made in New York and New England. 
Merchants invaded the markets of Europe. The English manu¬ 
facturers of felt petitioned Parliament to stop the trade; so 
in 1732 it passed a law which placed a fine of £500 on any person 
who should send or ship a hat out of the colony. 

7. The Molasses Act of 1733 placed a high duty on sugar and 
molasses imported from any.place other than the British West 
Indies, which, in effect, made the colonists buy all sugar and 
molasses from British merchants and planters. 

8. In 1750 Parliament passed a law prohibiting all iron-works 
and steel foundries in the colonies. 

In this manner, at the expense of the colonies, England tried 
to build up trade, commerce and industries at home. It is 
true, however, that some of these laws were not enforced, and 
that the colonists either ignored or violated them. Smuggling* 
became a business. 

* Those engaged in smuggling brought goods secretly into the colonies, to avoid paying 
the tax laid on the goods by the British Government. 


138 History of the United States. 

Writs of Assistance. When George III. became King, he 
prepared to stop smuggling by enforcing the navigation acts. 

Thus he hoped not only to build up the 
commerce of England, but also to raise 
money to help pay the heavy debt in¬ 
curred by the French and Indian war. 
“Writs of Assistance” or general search 
warrants had been issued to revenue of¬ 
ficers, which authorized them to enter 
any man’s house or store at any time to 
search for smuggled goods. The mer¬ 
chants of Boston engaged James Otis, a 
young but able attorney, to oppose in 
court the issuing of such writs. His elo¬ 
quent, logical and impassioned speech* 
excited great enthusiasm in Massachusetts. The writs, how¬ 
ever, were allowed under acts of Parliament. The same practice 
had been in use in England. The issuance of these writs 
aroused much ill-feeling and violent opposition among the 
colonists, for, said they, the home of an Englishman is his 
castle, not to be entered by law officers with general writs of 
assistance. 

Character of George III. The Governors and Colonists. 

For two generations England had been ruled chiefly by Parlia¬ 
ment. The first two Georges had little to do with the manage¬ 
ment of the empire, and less with that of the colonies. But 
when George III. came to the throne, 1760, he took the reins 
of government into his own hands. Often had he heard this 
mandate of his mother, “George, be King!” It was no easy 
task to get Parliament to yield to his will. But, by bribes in 
money and by the appointment of many members of Parliament 
and their friends to good offices, he secured control of a majority 
in Parliament, who worked with him to further his schemes. 
George III. was self-willed, arbitrary, and of narrow intellect; 
but he was determined to rule England and the colonies in 

* The patriotic John Adams was so impressed with Otis’s speech that he said “American 
independence was then and there born.” 



George III. 


The American Revolution. 


139 


his own way, without regard for the rights of the people. He 
undertook to enforce laws that had been ignored for years, and, 
with his bribed Parliament, he soon began to enact other laws, 
which drove the colonies first into union, then into rebellion. 

As we have already seen, some of the royal governors were 
harsh and arbitrary, making use of their office to secure personal 
gain. But when they became too overbearing the colonists 
could refuse, as they sometimes did, to pay them their salary. 
For the time being, this was pretty certain to procure fairer 
treatment from the governors. 

The colonists had lived for many years far removed from 
royalty and aristocracy. The spirit of freedom and equality 
had taken fast hold of them. For years they had practically 
ruled themselves. They began to look upon liberty and free¬ 
dom as a birthright, and were ready to resent any attempt to 
abridge their rights as Englishmen. 

The King’s Colonial Plans. Sir George Grenville, prime 
minister, outlined the King’s colonial plans. He proposed : 

1. To enforce the old trade and navigation laws. 

2. To keep 10,000 soldiers permanently in America. 

3. To increase the revenue from the colonies. The law 
(1733) placing a tax on sugar and molasses brought into the 
colonies was revised, 1764. 

4. That a new tax law, called the Stamp Tax, be passed. 

Vigorous measures were taken to enforce the old trade and 

navigation acts. Vessels were stationed along the coasts to 
watch for smugglers, who, when caught, were to be tried by 
courts of admiralty. 

The 10,000 soldiers were intended, as the King said, to pro¬ 
tect the colonists from the Indians and French. It is possible, 
however, that one of the motives was to strengthen the King’s 
power and to prevent the violation of the revenue laws. 

Taxation Without Representation. The question of 
taxation was of prime importance. The King wanted more 
revenue from the colonies. The tax collected did not yield 
sufficient money to pay the officers for collecting it. The 
quartering of troops in America required more money, and the 


140 


History of the United States. 


colonists were to be compelled to pay part of this increased 
expense. They opposed paying any tax which was .imposed 
upon them without their consent. They claimed that they 
were not represented in Parliament, so Parliament had no 
right to tax them. “ Taxation without representation is tyr¬ 
anny,” they said. It was not so much the amount of the tax 
as the principle of it, to which they objected, for they had al¬ 
ready paid in taxes levied by themselves, more than their share 
of the expense of the French and Indian War. They were op¬ 
posed to all direct taxes laid by Parliament.* They alone, they 
said, had the right to tax themselves. If the King needed money 
he should obtain it by a vote of the colonial assemblies, as he 
formerly had done. But the King and Parliament were deter¬ 
mined, and proceeded to carry out their plam of taxation. 

The Stamp Act, 1765. Over the protest of the Americans, 
the Stamp Act was passed in March, to go into effect Novem¬ 
ber 1st, 1765. The act was a 
lengthy document. If bound to¬ 
gether it would make a small 
book. It provided that all bills, 
notes, bonds, bills of lading, li¬ 
censes, marriage certificates, and 
other legal documents, should be 
written or printed on stamped 
paper made in England. All 
pamphlets, almanacs, newspapers 
and business forms were taxed. The stamps cost all the way 
from one penny to fifty dollars. If a man got a marriage li¬ 
cense, transacted any business, or bought a newspaper, he was 
sure to pay a tax. The money raised was to be used in Amer¬ 
ica in support of the army. 

Opposition to Stamp Act. The passage of the Stamp Act 

* A tax on lands, houses, money, furniture, or any other property, is a direct tax. A tax 
levied on imports, exports, or the manufacture or sale of products, is an indirect tax. This 
tax is paid through the custom-house to the government, by the importer, or manufacturer, 
as the case may be. The tax is added to the cost of the products, and the purchaser in the 
end pays for it, indirectly. A hat that might be sold for $2 free of duty would sell for 
$2.50 or more, with a duty of 50 cents. 



Stamps. 






The American Revolution. 


141 


was almost unnoticed in England, even in Parliament there 
was but little discussion; but in America it aroused a storm 
of violent opposition. The question was not, Shall America 
support the army? but, Shall Parliament tax the colonies? 
The colonists were determined not to be taxed. 

Sons of Liberty. In some of the towns people formed 
themselves into a secret order called the “Sons of Liberty,” 
to oppose the Stamp Act. Public meetings were held to de¬ 
nounce the act. Stamp officers were hung in effigy, and some 
were forced to resign. Mobs paraded the streets, shouting 
“Liberty, property, and no stamps!” Sometimes stamp offi¬ 
cers were forced to march in the parade and were made to join 
in the shouting. 

Non-Importation Agreement and “Daughters of Lib¬ 
erty.” Merchants pledged themselves not to import any goods 
from England until the Stamp Act was repealed. This was 
ruinous to some English industries. Hundreds of men were 
thrown out of work. Business languished. English merchants 
petitioned Parliament for the repeal of the Stamp Act. But 
England’s loss was America’s gain. Manufacturing increased 
in the colonies, and household industry developed to such an 
extent that each family could produce the chief necessities. 
Mothers and daughters took up with greater energy the work 
of weaving and spinning at home. To them was given the 
patriotic name of “Daughters of Liberty.” 

The Virginia Resolutions. The House of Burgesses in 
Virginia passed a set of resolutions denying the right of Parlia¬ 
ment to tax the colonies. Patrick Henry, the greatest of 
colonial orators, in supporting the resolutions, and while allud¬ 
ing to the tyranny of the King, said: “Csesar had his Brutus, 
Charles I. his Cromwell, and George III.”—here he paused 
for a moment for the cry of “Treason! Treason!” raised by 
several members, to cease, then continued—“may profit by 
their example. If this be treason, make the most of .it.” In 
Massachusetts, James Otis and Samuel Adams were stirring 
the people to open resistance. Plans were formed for a meeting 
of delegates from all the colonies, in New York City. 


142 


History of the United States. 


The Stamp Act Congress, 1765. Representatives from 
nine colonies met October 5, 1765.* After a secret session of 
twenty days they prepared a Declaration of Rights f and Griev¬ 
ances. They sent a petition to the King and a memorial to 
both houses of Parliament, expressing their views. 

The Stamp Act Repealed. When the 1st of November 
came, flags were hung at half-mast, bells were muffled and tolled. 
The colonies were in mourning. Processions carried banners 
bearing the inscription, “The folly of England and the ruin of 
America,” about the streets. The colonists did not stop with an 
expression of grief. There was bitter and violent opposition. In 
most of the colonies, not a stamped piece of paper was to be 
had. Boxes of stamped paper had been seized by mobs and 
committed to the flames. Documents were not legal without 
stamps, so courts were closed, and business came to a stand¬ 
still. Governors finally issued letters authorizing non-com¬ 
pliance with the law because stamps could not be bought. 
These difficulties, combined with the cry of distress from the 
manufacturers in England* led Parliament to repeal the Stamp 
Act, in March, 1766. But, with the repeal of the act was a 
declaration that Parliament had the right to tax the colonies 
“in all cases whatsoever.” 

The Townshend Acts, 1767. The colonists had rid them¬ 
selves of one tax, but it was not long till they felt the burden 
of another. Charles Townshend, Chancellor of the British Ex¬ 
chequer, brought in a new tax law. The colonists had denied 
that the King had a right to lay a direct tax, but had admitted 
that he had a right to lay an indirect tax by placing a duty on 
imports. In accord with this view, Parliament passed a new 
tax law (1767), which placed a duty on glass, paper, lead, 

* The colonies not represented were Virginia, North Carolina, New Hampshire, and 
Georgia. 

t Declaration of Rights. 1. That the Colonists have the same allegiance to the 
crown as Englishmen of the realm. 2. That the colonists are entitled to the same rights 
as natural-born Englishmen. 3. That Englishmen cannot be taxed except by their own 
consent. 4. That the colonists are not represented in Parliament. 5. That only repre¬ 
sentatives of the colonies can tax the colonists. 6. That Parliament cannot grant the 
property of the colonists to the King. 7. That a trial by jury is the inherent right of 
every British subject in the colonies. 8. That the Stamp Act and other late acts (the Sugar 
Act and Trade Acts) tended to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists. 


The American Revolution. 


143 


paints and tea, brought into the colonies. The taxes were not 
heavy, but the money was to be used for a dangerous purpose— 
to pay the salaries of governors, judges, and other officers, who 
would thus become entirely independent of the colonial as¬ 
semblies. In this way the government would be conducted 
by officials dependent upon the King. 

By another act the legislature of New York was denied the 
right to pass any more laws until it would comply with the 
Mutiny Act by furnishing quarters and supplies for the soldiers 
whom the King had sent. 

A third Townshend act created a Board of Commissioners 
at Boston to enforce the laws regulating trade. Thus, while 
building up her monoply in trade, England was increasing her 
revenues and attempting to widen and strengthen her rule over 
the colonies. 

The Colonies Resist. The merchants renewed their agree¬ 
ment not to import any more British goods. Ships loaded with 
such imports were sent back. Individuals pledged themselves 
not to eat, drink or wear anything imported from England until 
the duties were removed. Some merchants, prompted by love 
of money, tried to sell British goods, but they were waited 
on by mobs, and their goods destroyed or reshipped. The legis¬ 
lature of Massachusetts sent a circular letter, prepared by 
Samuel Adams, to the other colonies (1768), urging them to 
unite and to protect their rights. This enraged the King. 
His secretary demanded that the assembly withdraw the letter, 
and asked the governors of the other colonies to prevent their 
assemblies from taking notice of it. The assemblies disobeyed. 
They sent protests to Parliament, petitions to the King, and 
stirred up sentiment in the colonies against the acts. The legis¬ 
latures of half the«colonies were dissolved. It was impossible 
to enforce the Townshend Acts without the aid of troops. 
Riots were common. Two regiments of soldiers and seven ships 
of war were sent to Boston to strengthen the government. 
Efforts to enforce the laws brought on collisions. When the 
revenue officer boarded John Hancock’s ship, Liberty , he 
was seized and held by a crowd until the cargo of wines, except 


144 


History of the United States . 


a small amount, was unloaded. Thus the owners forcibly es¬ 
caped paying the duty. After the officer was released the 
British men-of-war seized the Liberty , because taxes had not 
been paid on the entire cargo. A riot followed. The custom¬ 
house officers were compelled to fly to the barracks for safety. 
Thus the King and Parliament were defied. 

Treason Law Revived. England added more fuel to the 
flame when Parliament (1769) threatened to revive an old 
law (passed in the days of Henry VIII.) to take all persons ac¬ 
cused of treason to England for trial. 

Boston Massacre, 1770. The presence of the royal troops 
everywhere gave great offense to the people. They felt that 
the last spark of liberty was to be extinguished. No one knew 
what next to expect. A little incident might produce a great 
tragedy. On the night of March 5th, 1770, while a crowd of 
men and boys were taunting some soldiers, the soldiers, either 
from panic, fear or resentment, fired into the crowd, killing 
five and wounding six. This event, which has since been known 
as the Boston Massacre, fanned the passions of the people of 
the whole land, and helped to hasten the Revolution. 

The Gaspee, 1772. Colonists along the coast of Rhode 
Island, with muffled oars at night rowed to the Gaspee, 
an armed British vessel which had been patrolling the coast to 
catch smugglers, overpowered and bound the crew, took them 
to the shore, and burned the vessel. These events with many 
others were bringing matters to a crisis. 

All Taxes Repealed except those on Tea. About a month 
after the Boston Massacre, Parliament repealed the duty on all 
articles except tea, the duty on which was kept to show that 
Parliament had a right to tax the colonies. But this was the 
very thing that the colonies opposed. They cared little for 
the tax; everything for the principle. The King and -Parlia¬ 
ment had now given up the attempt to tax the colonists for 
revenue. Their final aim was to uphold the same principle the 
colonists were opposing. The tax on tea was only threepence a 
pound. The colonists refused to import, buy or drink tea. 
Tea had accumulated in the warehouses of the East India 


The American Revolution. 


145 


Company to the amount of 17,000,000 pounds. The company 
was facing bankruptcy. On tea sent to America the British 
government removed the duty of twelvepence a pound, which 
was paid in England, so that tea could be purchased more 
cheaply in America than in England, or than it could be smug¬ 
gled from Holland. This was a tempting bait, but it did not 
work. Several shiploads of tea were sent to the colonies, with 
the hope that the people would buy the tea at a low price when 
landed. But the colonists would not even allow the tea to be 
landed. In Philadelphia and New York, the people forced the 
captains of the tea ships to sail back to England. At Annap¬ 
olis resolute men forced a rich Tory to set fire to his own ship 
of tea, and in South Carolina the tea was stored in the custom¬ 
house for safe-keeping. 

Boston Tea Party. When the tea ships arrived at Boston 
a public meeting was held in Faneuil Hall, the “ Cradle of 
Liberty,” as it was called, at which 
the act was denounced. Under the 
leadership of Samuel Adams, a band 
of men disguised as Mohawk Indians 
boarded the ships (Dec. 16, 1773), 
cut open the tea-boxes, and threw 
the entire cargo of 342 chests into 
the sea. This incident has since 
been known as the Boston Tea 
Party. That very night messengers 
were sent to inform the other towns 
of what Boston had done. The 
next day Paul Revere, the most 
famous of revolutionary couriers, 
set out to carry the message to New 
York and Philadelphia. 

The Intolerable Acts, 1774. The series of events ending 
in the Boston Tea Party enraged the King beyond measure. 
He concluded that the time to conciliate was past, and that 
the hour for punishment had come. The “Boston rebels” 
were to be brought to their senses. Five laws, so severe in 



Faneuil Hall. 









146 


History of the United States. 



Samuel Adams. 


their character that they were called by the colonists the 
“Intolerable Acts,” were passed: 

1. The Boston Port Act. The 
Port Act closed the port of Boston, 
except to food and fuel. No ships 
with other cargoes were allowed to 
enter or leave the port. British men- 
of-war were placed there to enforce 
the act until Boston should pay for 
the tea destroyed, amounting to 
about $100,000, and would give sat¬ 
isfaction to the King that the laws 
would in the future be obeyed. The 
custom-house officers were moved to 
Salem. 

2. The Regulation (or the Massachusetts Govern¬ 
ment) Act. The King de¬ 
termined to take all power 
out of the hands of the 
people of Massachusetts by 
changing* their charter, and 
making the colony a royal 
province. The governor ap¬ 
pointed by the King was to 
select and dismiss all sher¬ 
iffs, judges, and magistrates. 
The sheriffs were to select 
the jurymen. The town 
meeting, except for a few 
elections, was abolished. 
Almost every vestige of 
self - government was de¬ 
stroyed. * 

Boston Tea Party. The TRANSPORTATION 

Bill or Administration of 
Justice gave the colonial governor the power to send anyone 
indicted for murder, while in the service of the King, to England 













The American Revolution. 


147 


or to another colony for trial. This was to make officers more 
active and fearless in using rigorous means to enforce laws. 

4. The Quartering Act legalized the quartering of troops 
in the colonies. 

5. The Quebec Act. (See p. 117.) 

Gage, general-in-chief of the English army in America, was 
appointed also governor of Massachusetts. Four more regi¬ 
ments of regulars were placed at his command, with which to 
enforce the acts and restore order and obedience. If need be he 
should send Samuel Adams and John Hancock, the great 
patriotic leaders in Massachusetts, to England for trial. Thus, 
England hoped to be able to starve or coerce Boston and the 
rest of Massachusetts into obedience. 

The Colonies Unite to Oppose the Intolerable Acts. 
Boston was not left to fight her battles alone. A great wave of 
practical sympathy, borne by an ocean of indignation, swept 
over the land. South Carolina and Maryland sent corn and 
rice. Israel Putnam drove a flock of sheep from Connecticut 
to Boston. George Washington subscribed fifty pounds, and 
said: “If need be I will raise a thousand men, subsist them at 
my own expense, and march at their head for the relief of 
Boston.” Patrick Henry declared: “We must fight. I re¬ 
peat it, sir, we must fight. I know not what course others may 
pursue, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death.” This 
was the spirit from Maine to Georgia. None of the colonies 
would stand idly by and see another crushed into submission 
by the tyranny of an arbitrary king. The Virginia assembly 
set aside the day on which the Port Act was to go into effect, 
as a day of “fasting, humiliation and prayer.” For this, the 
governor dismissed the assembly; but its members met again, 
and appointed a committee to correspond with the other 
colonies for the purpose of calling a meeting of delegates from 
all the colonies. The place selected for the meeting was Phil¬ 
adelphia, and the body which met there has ever since been 
called the First Continental Congress. 

The First Continental Congress. The delegates met in 
Carpenter’s Hall, Philadelphia, September 5th, 1774. Forty- 


148 


History of the United States. 


five persons were present, representing every colony but Georgia, 
where the governor prevented the choice of delegates. It was 
a great meeting of great Americans to consider great questions. 
Among the leading spirits were : Patrick Henry, Richard Henry 
Lee and George Washington, of Virginia; Samuel Adams and 
John Adams, of Massachusetts; John Dickinson, of Penn¬ 
sylvania ; Roger Sherman, of Connecticut; and the Rutledges, 
of South Carolina. The Congress continued in session until 
October 26th. It indorsed the conduct of the people of Boston, 
and exhorted them to stand firm. It sent an address to the 
people of the colonies, urging them to unite in support of the 
cause of Massachusetts, and formed an association agreeing 
not to use or import any British goods or products until the 
liberties of the colonies were secured. It sent an address to 
the Canadians, one to 4he people of Great Britain, and a pe¬ 
tition to the King, asking for a “redress of grievances.” It 
issued a remarkable paper known as the “Declaration of Re¬ 
solves/’ which the colonists accepted as an expression of ideals 
wished for and hopes to be attained. 

Declaration of Rights.* Among other things the Congress 
asserted that the colonists had— 

1. The right to life, liberty, and property. 

2. That they were entitled to the rights of Englishmen and 
all other rights promised in the colonial charters. 

3. That they alone had the right to tax themselves. 

4. That they had the right peaceably to assemble and'pe¬ 
tition the King and Parliament for a redress of grievances. 

5. That the keeping of a standing army in the colonies in 
time of peace was against all law. 

These rights, they declared, were violated by the several 
acts which Parliament had passed. Only by the repeal of these 
could harmony between Great Britain and the colonies be 
restored. If England should attempt to execute the late laws 
against Massachusetts by force, then, said the Continental 
Congress, “In such a case all America ought to support them 

* The great William Pitt said of the document: “The histories of Greece and Rome give 
us nothing equal to it.” 


The American Revolution. 


149 


[Massachusetts] in their opposition.’’ This could mean but 
one thing—war. Before Congress adjourned it provided for a 
meeting of another Congress, May 
10th, 1775, to receive the King’s 
answer to the petition. 

Preparations for War. Governor 
Gage found it no easy task to enforce 
the laws and punish the rebellious 
colonists. After calling the Massachu¬ 
setts legislature to assemble.at Salem 
in October (1774), he postponed it on 
account of the angry tone of the 
people. But the legislature met with¬ 
out the governor’s consent, and 
organized a new government, with 
John Hancock at its head. A com¬ 
mittee of safety was appointed, which 
prepared for possible war. The pa¬ 
triots began to collect arms, to drill 
the militia, and select officers. Mas¬ 
sachusetts called for an army of 
12,000 men, called “minute-men,” 
who were to be ready at a moment’s 
notice to march to any point of danger, 
many of the King’s judges, sheriffs and 
custom-house officers were forced by 
mobs to resign and close their offices, 
temporarily suspending the operation of 
law. Royalists were driven from their 
estates and took refuge with the British 
army. 

Different Views in England and 
America. The people neither in Eng¬ 
land nor in America were wholly united. 

Parliament had a large majority favor¬ 
ing radical measures of King George. 

But some of the greatest statesmen, like Pitt, Burke, and Fox, 



The Minute-man. 

After a statue by Daniel 
French, on the site of the battle 
of Concord. 


In the mean time 



William Pitt, a Friend of 
the Colonies. 



150 


History of the United States. 


were favorable to the Colonies. In America the people were 
divided. The majority opposed the acts of England. They 
were called “ patriots.” Not a small number sided with the 
King and Parliament. They were called “loyalists,” or 
“Tories.” 

Suggestions for Review. 

What was the English colonial policy? What were the Navigation 
Acts? What were Writs of Assistance? The Royal Governors? The 
colonists? What was the colonial policy of George III.? What is meant 
by “taxation without representation”? What was the Stamp Act? Tell 
of the opposition to it. Who were the Sons of Liberty? What was the 
Non-Importation Agreement? What were the Virginia Resolutions? 
What is said of the Stamp Act Congress? What action did Parliament 
take? What were the Townshend Acts? How did the colonies resist? 
What was the cause of the Boston Massacre? What was the cause of the 
Boston Tea Party? What were the Intolerable Acts? Give them. Tell 
of the first Continental Congress. What was the Declaration of Rights? 
Who were the minute-men? Who were the Tories? 

Tell something of the following named persons, place, and dates: 
Patrick Henry, James Otis, Samuel Adams, John Hancock, George III., 
Charles Townshend; Faneuil Hall; 1765, 1774. 

Write an outline of the causes of the Revolutionary War. 






CHAPTER XII. 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

EARLY EVENTS. 

Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775. At Concord, 
some twenty miles from Boston, the patriots had collected a 
quantity of military stores. General Gage had been directed 
to seize the stores and arrest John Hancock and Samuel Adams. 
London papers boasted that the heads of these two prominent 
“rebels” would soon be seen in the city. Gage sent a force 
of 800 men to destroy the stores at Concord, and on the way to 
arrest Hancock and Adams, who were at Lexington. The 
British troops left Boston secretly about midnight, April 18, 
1775. But the patriots were on the watch. A sentinel in the 
tower of the Old North Church, in Boston, with signal lanterns 
flashed the news to watchful couriers in Charlestown that the 
British had started^ The messengers, among them Paul Revere, 



Paul Revere’s Ride. 

151 








152 


History of the United States. 


whose name has been preserved by Longfellow’s poem, “Paul 
Revere’s Ride,”* galloped through country and town, spreading 
the alarm. The British arrived at Lexington at dawn on the 
morning of the 19th, where a number of minute-men confronted 
them. “Disperse, you rebels!” was the shrill cry of Major 
Pitcairn, the British officer, but the patriots did not obey. The 
British fired into the crowd, killing eight and wounding ten. 
The rest retreated. Adams and Hancock escaped. The pa¬ 
triots went to Concord, destroyed the stores, set fire to the 
court-house, and started back to Boston. News of these thrill¬ 
ing events aroused the whole country. The British had given 
the challenge of war, and the patriots hastened to accept it. 
Bodies of niinute-men flocked to the scene, and opened fire on 
the retreating foe. The British march to Lexington and Concord 
was a holiday jaunt. That from Lexington was a flight for life. 
From farmhouse and hedge, from bush and rock, tree and 
fence, poured the deadly fire of the American yeomen. Lord 
Percy came to Lexington with a thousand men as reinforce¬ 
ments from Boston, but he could not stay the fighting spirit 
of the patriots, who bore down on every side and drove the 
British to Boston, with a loss of nearly 300 dead and wounded. 
All night long the minute-men continued to pour in from every 
quarter. The next morning found the “ Red-Coats ”f shut up 
in Boston by bands of Yankee patriots. 

Ethan Allen and Ticonderoga. Ethan Allen with a com¬ 
pany of Green Mountain Boys, accompanied by Benedict 
Arnold, surprised the British garrison at Ticonderoga, May 10, 
1775. They gained entrance to the fort unobserved and 
captured it without the loss of a single man. Delaplace, the 
commander, was yet in bed. A knock at the door and a 
summons to surrender were his first warnings. Amazed and 
dazed, with trousers in hand, he said to Allen, “Surrender to 
whom and by whose authority?” “To me, Ethan Allen,” he 

* Paul Revere and William Dawes, another messenger, were captured a few miles be¬ 
yond Lexington and taken back to Boston as prisoners, but Dr. Samuel Prescott carried 
the news to Concord. 

t The British soldiers were called “Red-Coats” because they wore red uniforms. 


The American Revolution. 


153 


is said to have replied, “in the name of the Great Jehovah and 
the Continental Congress!” 

Crown Point was captured a few days later by a band of 
patriots under Seth Warner. 



The Spirit of ’76, or Three Generations, (son, father, and grandfather.) 

Note the expression of grim determination on the face of the old man, the gladness of 
the father, and the confidence of the boy. See the broken cannon-wheel, and the wounded 
soldier, unable to rise, but with strength to wave encouragement to his comrades. 

The Second Continental Congress. The Second Conti¬ 
nental Congress* met May 10, 1775, the very day that Ticon- 
deroga surrendered. The Congress was called to hear the an¬ 
swer from the King to the petitions of the First Continental 
Congress. The King sent no answer to Congress, but armies 
instead, to subdue the colonists. The First Continental 

* This Congress was called “Continental” because it represented the whole English 
group of colonies. Great Britain is an island. Afterward the American soldiers were 
sometimes called “Continentals.” 



154 


History of the United States. 


Congress debated, petitioned, and issued a Declaration of 
Rights. The Second Continental Congress was a Congress of 
action. It became the general ruling body, the responsible 
head of the colonies. It set to work with an energy seldom 
equalled by any legislative body, to manage the war and to 
direct the general affairs of the colonies. 

Excepting for short intermissions, it remained in session at 
various places, until near the close of the war, 1781. The 
chief things accomplished in the early session at Philadelphia 
were: 

1. It selected one of its number, George Washington,* for 
Commander-in-chief of the army. 

2. It issued bills of credit (paper money). 

3. It created a postoffice department with Benjamin Frank¬ 
lin at the head. 

4. Still professing loyalty to the mother country, it sent a 
last petition to the King and issued addresses to the people 
of Great Britain, Ireland, and Canada. 

Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. The second battle 
of the American Revolution was fought before Washington took 
command of the army. Patriots, learning of the British plans, 
sent a force of 1500 men under Colonel Prescott, on the night 
of June 16th, to take possession of Bunker Hill. By mistake 
or design, Prescott passed Bunker Hill and began to fortify 
Breed’s Hill, nearer to Boston. All night long the Americans 
toiled, throwing up breastworks. Great was the surprise of 
the British next morning to see the strong hill already occupied. 
All that forenoon the British cannonaded the hill from Boston 
and from the war-ships. But in the afternoon 3,000 veteran 
British troops under General Howe crossed from Boston to 
drive the Americans out. Expecting the Americans to run, 
the British troops advanced. Prescott’:? orders were," “Don’t 
fire till you see the whites of their eyes.” They were obeyed. 
When the enemy were within fifty yards, a terrific volley from 

* Washington served without pay. His salary was fixed at $500 a month. In accepting 
the command Washington said he did not wish to make any profit out of the position, but 
would ask Congress to pay only his expenses. 


The American Revolution, 


155 


the Americans thinned their ranks. The British retreated, 
re-formed, and again advanced, but again were driven back 
with heavy loss. A third attempt ended in success. The 
Continentals ran out of powder and were without bayonets. 
For a time they defended themselves with the butt end of their 
guns, but finally left the peninsula. The British loss was over 



1,000; the American less 
than half that number. 
General Warren, one of 
the bravest of the patriot 
leaders, and Major Pit¬ 
cairn, who began the battle of Lexington, were both killed. 
The battle had the moral effect of a victory for the Americans. 


Boston and Vicinity. 


The bravery of the patriots forever silenced the taunts and 
slurs so freely used by the British about the valor of Americans, 
and dispelled all doubt about the ability of the “minute-men” 
to meet the British regulars. It built up the hope and con¬ 
fidence of the Americans. 

Washington in Command. Washington reached Cam¬ 
bridge, and under the shade of a great elm took command of 
the army July 3d. The soldiers were poorly armed and with- 






















156 


History of the United States. 


out discipline. But Lexington and Bunker Hill showed that 
they could fight. The want of ammunition was a serious draw¬ 
back, but this was gradually supplied. New York cast a num¬ 
ber of cannon. General Knox brought forty heavy guns on 
sleds through the forests from Ticonderoga. Manufactories 
of arms and gunpowder were , set up in the colonies. For 
immediate use the patriots purchased powder from Ireland 
and the Bahama Islands. A considerable quantity was seized 
from British vessels before their crews knew that American 
privateers were on the seas. Washington spent the winter 
drilling, disciplining and equipping the troops, and in getting 
ready to fight. 

One of the troubles of General Howe, who succeeded General 
Gage, was the difficulty of getting food for his army. 

Invasion of Canada. Congress feared that the British 
in Canada under Sir Guy Carleton would invade New York. 
To prevent this, two expeditions were sent into Canada to 
capture Montreal and Quebec; the first, under command of 
Montgomery, set out from Ticonderoga. Near the St. Law¬ 
rence he defeated Carleton, captured Montreal in November, 
and in December laid siege to Quebec. The second, under 
Benedict Arnold, went by boat from Newburyport to Maine. 
They ascended the Kennebec river, passing through dense 
forests over the divide in a toilsome and difficult journey. 
After six weeks, with his weary, ragged, half-starved army, now 
greatly diminished in number, he reached Quebec. Mont¬ 
gomery and Arnold joined their small forces and assaulted the 
city; but the attack ended in failure, Montgomery being killed 
and Arnold wounded. In the spring the American troops re¬ 
treated from Catiada. 

Capture of Boston. On the night of March 4th, 1776, 
while a cannonade held the attention of the British, the Amer¬ 
icans secretly occupied Dorchester Heights (now South Bos¬ 
ton). With energy and dispatch they placed a line of cannons 
overlooking the city and harbor. Boston then lay at the 
mercy of Washington. Howe had been outgeneraled. 

An attempt to take the hill would end in disaster, so he con- 


The American Revolution. 


157 


eluded to leave the city. On the 17th of March he sailed with 
his army for Halifax, carrying with him 1,500 Tories. Wash¬ 
ington took possession of Boston, but a few days later marched 



Arnold’s and Montgomery’s Routes to Quebec and Washington’s 
Route to New York. 


to New York City, which, he believed, would be attacked next 
by the British. 

Declaration of Independence, July 4th, 1776. The 

attitude of England had produced a great change of sentiment 













158 


History of the United States. 



in America. At first the colonists wanted a redress of griev¬ 
ances. They next began to fight for their rights as English¬ 
men. But when the King called them “rebels” and sent 
troops to put down the “rebellion,” sentiment grew rapidly 
for independence. A pamphlet called “Common Sense,” 
written by Thomas Paine, strongly advocated separation from 
England. It was read by tens of thousands, and expressed 

what most of the people 
really felt. Virginia in¬ 
structed her delegates in 
Congress to vote for inde¬ 
pendence. On June 7th 
Richard Henry Lee of Vir¬ 
ginia offered a resolution 
that became famous : “Re¬ 
solved, That these United 
Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and inde¬ 
pendent states; that they 
are absolved from all alle¬ 
giance to the British crown, 

Independence Hall, Philadelphia. and that all political con¬ 
nection between them and 
the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” 
John Adams of Massachusetts seconded the resolution. No 



Signing the Declaration of Independence, 1776. 






The American Revolution. 


159 



Franklin’s device to show 
the need of union. “Unite 
or Die,” was his plea. The 
head of the snake represents 
New England; the other 
colonies are marked with 
initials. 


vote was taken until July 2, but a committee of five was ap¬ 
pointed June 11th to draw a formal Declaration of Independence. 

The members of the committee were Thomas Jefferson, John 
Adams, Roger Sherman, Benjamin Franklin, and Robert R. 
Livingston. To Jefferson, the chairman, 
fell the duty of writing the Declaration. 

No one was better fitted for the task. 

Of him it was said : “He could calculate 
an eclipse, survey an estate, tie an artery, 
plan an edifice, try a cause, break a horse, 
dance a minuet, and play a violin.” He 
was a master in the use of English, and 
was deeply learned in several languages. 

As Washington is sometimes called the sword, so Jefferspn may 
be called the pen of the Revolution; for with but few changes 
the Declaration of Independence, as drafted by him, was 
adopted by the Continental Congress, July 4th, 1776. (Read 
it, p. 00.) John Hancock, President of the Congress, signed 
the Declaration in the plain bold hand which, as he said, “The 
King of England could read without his spectacles.” 

The “Liberty Bell” in the Old State House in Philadelphia 
rang out the joyous tidings to the people. It, in truth, was 
sounding the message which had been 
cast upon its side twenty-four years 
before : “Proclaim liberty throughout 
the land, unto all the inhabitants there¬ 
of.” Some days later, August 2, the 
rest of the members of Congress signed 
the Declaration. Hancock remarked, 

“We must all hang together. ” “ Yes, ” 

said Franklin, “we must all hang to¬ 
gether or we shall all hang sepa¬ 
rately.” By the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence the United Colonies became 
the United States, but it took five 

. Liberty Bell. 

more years of war to convince the “Proclaim liberty throughout 
King and Parliament of this fact. ants thereof 0 ” 0 aU the inhablt ' 
















160 History of the United States. 

WASHINGTON’S CAMPAIGNS IN NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 

Washington in New York. After reaching New York, 
Washington built Forts Lee and Washington above the city, 
on opposite banks of the Hudson, and fortified Brooklyn Heights 
in the western part of Long Island. 

He had judged correctly as to the British plans; for a fleet 
bearing Howe’s army arrived at Staten Island, July 2, where 
it was joined by another fleet and force from England under 
his brother, Admiral Howe. These, together with Hessian* 
soldiers that soon followed, increased the British army to 30,- 
000. To oppose these Washington had about 17,000, with 
probably a third of them on Long Island under the command of 
Israel Putnam. 

The great object of the British was to seize New York and 
the country along the Hudson, and to open up a line of com¬ 
munication with Canada, thus separating New England, the 
head and front of the rebellion, from the rest of the colonies. 
It was supposed that this could be accomplished quite easily, 
for New York City, more than any other locality, was a center 
for Tories. The Hudson, Lake Champlain and the St. Law¬ 
rence (as there were then no railroads) offered a good route 
over which to carry supplies. With New York subdued, they 
then hoped to fall upon Massachusetts and crush out the re¬ 
bellion. 

Battle of Long Island and Capture of New York. Howe 
landed an army on Long Island more than twice as large as the 
American force, and on August 27th totally defeated Putnam’s 
troops and drove them behind their intrenchments. The 
Americans were hemmed in on every side. A mile of sea sepa¬ 
rated them from the rest of Washington’s troops. A superior 
army opposed them on one side and a great fleet on the other. 
It seemed that the whole force would be compelled to surrender 
in a short time. But the energy and skill of Washington saved 
the army. Leaving the camp-fires still burning, under cover 

* Not enough English volunteered to carry on the war, so King George hired German 
troops from the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel (hence the name Hessian) and others, amount¬ 
ing in all to about 30,000 during the war. 


The American Revolution . 


161 


of a dense fog and a dark night Washington crossed to New York, 
and then marched north along the Hudson.* When Howe 
reached out in the morning to capture the “nest of rebels,” 
they were gone. The British took possession of Long Island 
and New York City. Howe issued a proclamation promising 
pardon to all who would lay down their arms, but the colonists 
wanted no pardon at the sacrifice of their rights. 

Campaign Along the Hudson.! American forces were 
stationed at points along the Hudson at Fort Lee, Fort Wash¬ 
ington, West Point, and North Castle, while Washington moved 
on the east side of the river. The British under Cornwallis 
followed. Fort Lee was abandoned. Learning the plans of 
Fort Washington from a deserter, Cornwallis succeeded in 
taking the fort (Nov. 12, 1776), with 3,000 prisoners. The loss 
of these forts was a terrible blow. 

After Washington left New York some irresponsible parties 
set fire to the city, and a large part was burned. A part of 
Washington’s army was overtaken and defeated at White 
Plains. He was compelled to retreat. In what direction would 
he go? Naturally toward Philadelphia, at that time the capital 
of the colonies. 

Retreat Across New Jersey. The retreat of Washington’s 
army across New Jersey hardly has a parallel in history. It 
was a game of “hide-and-seek” between a ragged, hungry, un¬ 
paid and poorly armed band of patriots on the one hand and 
a large army of well-drilled and finely equipped European 
troops on the other. Washington could not meet in regular 
battle five times his own number. He acted on the principle 
that “he who fights and runs away may live to fight another 
day.” More than once the van of Cornwallis’s army overtook 
the rear of Washington’s army as his men lingered to burn 
bridges or obstruct the British march. In vain did Washing- 

* The patriot army carried away the church-bells from the city to have them molded into 
cannon-balls. 

f During the New York campaign, Washington wanted certain information concerning 
the movements of the British. Nathan Hale volunteered to get it. On his return trip 
he was captured by the British, tried and convicted as a spy, and sentenced to be hanged. 
When going to his death he said, “I regret that I have but one life to give to my country.” 


162 


History of the United States. 



Trace Washington’s line of march from Brooklyn to White Plains; across New Jersey 
into Pennsylvania; to Trenton and back to Pennsylvania; to Princeton and Morristown; 
to Philadelphia, Brandywine,'and Valley Forge; across New Jersey to Monmouth, White 
Plains, and Morristown; to proposed attack on New York; to Philadelphia and Elkton 
for Yorktown. Tell a connected story of his plans, purposes, marches, battles, defeats, 
and victories. 

ton send messengers to Charles Lee, who was at North Castle 
with 7,000 men, to join him. Only the extraordinary skill and 
remarkable energy of the great leader saved the army. 

Capture of Lee. Lee disobeyed. By withholding his own 
forces he hoped to bring failure to Washington and thus succeed 
him. He finally crossed the Hudson (Dec. 2, 1776) and moved 










The American Revolution. 


163 



leisurely across New Jersey. While stopping over-night at a 
small inn at Basking Ridge, outside the army lines, he was cap¬ 
tured by a party of British dragoons. Sullivan, who was next 
in command to Lee, hurried the troops off to join Washington, 
who had reached the Delaware in safety; but his army was 
reduced to 3,000 men. It was in danger of disbanding. The 
patriotic cause seemed lost. British generals were preparing 
to return to England. It was a period of gloom and distress, 
but soon to be changed by the military skill of Washington 
into a season of rejoicing. On reaching the Delaware at Tren¬ 
ton, Washington seized every boat, far and wide, up and down 
the river, and crossed into Pennsylvania, cutting off the British 
pursuit. Cornwallis distributed his troops in several towns 
in New Jersey and waited with his advance at Trenton for the 
river to freeze so he could again take up the chase. 


Washington Crossing the Delaware. 

Battle of Trenton, Dec. 26, 1776. Reinforced by Lee’s 
troops, Washington planned a surprise for the British before 
they would recover from their Christmas festivities. On 
Christmas night, amid drifting ice, he crossed the Delaware 
with 2,400 picked men, marched nine miles in a blinding snow¬ 
storm, and surprised and captured a thousand Hessians. His 




164 


History of the United States. 


own loss was two killed and two wounded. Cornwallis hurried 
a large force to the scene, but Washington with his prisoners 
was again safe across the river. 

Battle of Princeton, Jan. 3, 1777. A few days later 
Washington again crossed the Delaware into New Jersey. 
With a strong force Cornwallis advanced to give battle. Only 
a small creek divided the two armies on the night of Jan. 2. 
“At last,” said Cornwallis, “we have run down the old fox 
and we will bag him in the morning.” But that night, leav¬ 
ing his camp-fires burning, Washington made a forced march 
to Princeton, and there fell upon and defeated the troops Corn¬ 
wallis had left to guard his line of defense. It has been said 
that the booming of the cannon at Princeton first announced 
to Cornwallis the fact that Washington had slipped away. 

These brilliant victories produced a wonderful effect. Joy, 
hope and confidence were restored, money was raised and more 
troops enlisted. 

After the battle of Princeton Washington went into winter 
quarters among the hills around Morristown, while the British 
retired to New Brunswick and Amboy. 


Suggestions for Review. 

What caused the Battles of Concord and Lexington? Tell of the Second 
Continental Congress. Tell of the Battle of Bunker Hill and its effects. 
What resulted from the Canada campaign? Tell of the Declaration of 
Independence. What were its effects upoirthe colonies? Give an account 
of Washington’s campaign around New York and in New Jersey. Where 
did Washington go into camp in 1776? What impression did this cam¬ 
paign make? 

Tell something of the following named persons, places, and dates: 
Paul Revere, Ethan Allen, John Hancock, George Washington, Israel 
Putnam, Hessians, Nathan Hale, Charles Lee; Bunker Hill, Quebec, 
Independence Hall, Trenton; May 10, 1775, July 4, 1776. 


CHAPTER XIII. 

CAMPAIGNS IN THE NORTH. 

General Plans. In the summer of 1777 the British began 
a second attempt to separate New England from the rest of 
the colonies by an invasion of New York. The movement 
was to be made by way of Canada, and the plan was three-fold 
in character. 

1. The main army under Burgoyne, who had succeeded 
Carleton, was to invade New York from Canada by way of 
Lake Champlain and the Hudson. 

2. A second army under St. Leger was to ascend the St. 
Lawrence and Lake Ontario to Oswego, then move across the 
state, down the Mohawk valley, stirring up the powerful 
Indian tribes on the way. 

3. A third expedition was to ascend the Hudson from NewYork. 

All were to unite at Albany. A study of the map will show 

that these plans were simple and sufficiently complete, if 
carried out, to bring the state of New York into line for the 
British. But, “ The best- 
laid schemes o’ mice and 
men gang aft agley.” So 
it was with the British. 

The end left “ naught 
but grief and pain for 
promised joy.” 

Burgoyne’s Invasion 
of New York. With a 
fine army of 8,000 picked 
men General John Bur¬ 
goyne left Canada, re¬ 
ceiving many Indian re- Burgoyne’s March through New York. 

emits as he ascended Lake Champlain. The American army 
under St. Clair hastily fled southward, abandoning Ticonderoga 

165 



166 


History of the United States. 



and ninety-three cannon. At Skeenesboro the British fleet 
captured a large stock of stores and provisions which had been 
taken from Ticonderoga by boat. The rear of the retreating 
army was overtaken at Hubbardston, and severely punished, 
but it finally reached Ford Edward, where Schuyler held com¬ 
mand. The entire American army did not now exceed 4,000 
men. The cause seemed dark indeed to the colonists as they 
thought of the British, with their bloodthirsty Indian allies, 
overrunning the state. But the first feeling of panic soon gave 








Campaigns in the North. 


167 


way to indignation and determined resistance. The militia of 
New York and New England flew to arms, and joined Schuyler’s 
army. The progress of the British through the wilderness was 
hindered in every way. Schuyler’s men destroyed bridges, 
felled trees across roads and in the line of march, obstructed 
fords, cut off the food supply, and in every way made life a 
burden to the invaders. 

Baum and Colonel John Stark at Bennington. Bur- 

goyne learned that the Americans had collected a supply of 
food at Bennington, a small town in southwestern Vermont. 
He sent Colonel Baum with 1,000 Hessians to capture the 
stores. Colonel Stark,* at the head of the state militia or 
Green Mountain Boys, as they are sometimes called, defeated 
and captured nearly the entire force (Aug. 15). The few who es¬ 
caped rejoined Burgoyne. This brilliant victory reduced the 
British army in numbers, and greatly encouraged the patriots. 

St. Leger’s Expedition. From Oswego St. Leger advanced 
and laid siege to Fort Stanwix, now Fort Schuyler. General 
Herkimer gathered a body of state 
militia and marched to the relief 
of the fort. When near at hand 
he was ambushed (Aug. 6) and de¬ 
feated, but the garrison from the 
fort sallied forth and beat back the 
British. It was here that the stars 
and stripes, a few weeks after its 
adoption by Congress (June 14, 

1777), first floated over a battle¬ 
field. The flag was made of a piece 
of blue jacket, strips of a white 
shirt and of a red petticoat, and 
was flung to the breeze high above 
the ramparts. Underneath it were 
hung, upside down, five British 
flags captured from St. Leger. 



Flag Used by Gen. Washington 
at Cambridge in January, 1776. 



Flag Adopted by Congress June. 
14, 1777. 


* Tradition says that as the fight was about to begin, Stark, pointing to the British, 
said: “There are the British red-coats; we beat them today or Molly Stark’s a widow 
tonight!” 











168 


History of the United States. 


General Schuyler sent three regiments up the Mohawk valley 
under Arnold to the relief of Fort Stanwix. Arnold sent a 
messenger ahead to announce that a very large American army 
was at hand. The British and Indians becoming alarmed, fled, 
leaving stores and baggage behind. Arnold returned to the 
Hudson in time to take part in the battle of Saratoga. 

Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga, Oct. 17, 1777. 
Burgoyne* saw the dangers grow thick and fast about him. 
Baum’s army had been destroyed and St. Leger’s defeated. 
The Indian allies began to desert. Food became scarce. Re¬ 
inforcements flocked to the Americans until they outnumbered 
the British. Lincoln came with 2,000 New England troops. 
Daniel Morgan of Virginia brought a rifle corps of 500 sharp¬ 
shooters, and Arnold’s regiments were on the way back from 
Stanwix. General Howe, who was to come up the Hudson, 
moved against Philadelphia, sending General Clinton up the 
river too late to reach Burgoyne. Advance and retreat were 
alike perilous. 

Burgoyne made two desperate attempts to drive back the 
Americans, at Bemis Heights (September 19) and at Stillwater 
(October 7), but each time was defeated. He retired to Sara¬ 
toga, where he surrendered, October 17, 1777, to General 
Gates, who by orders of Congress had succeeded General 
Schuyler a short time before. The credit of the victory was 
due largely to Morgan, Arnold, and Schuyler. 

Results of the Surrender. So far as the results are con¬ 
cerned, Saratoga is called one of the decisive battles of the 
world. It brought hope and confidence to the colonists, doubt 
and despair to the British, and was the means of securing an 
alliance between America and France. The British plans were 
overturned and their fighting force reduced by 10,000 men. 
The King came forward with a proposal for peace, promising 
not to tax the colonies, to give them representation in Parlia¬ 
ment, and to grant pardon to all; in fact, to grant everything 
except independence, if the colonists would lay down their arms. 

* At the beginning of the campaign, Burgoyne boasted th&t he would eat Christmas 
dinner in Albany. He ate his dinner there before that day, but as a prisoner of war. 


Campaigns in the North. 


169 


French Alliance, Feb. 6, 1778.* Soon after the Declara¬ 
tion of Independence was proclaimed, Benjamin Franklin was 
sent as a commissioner to get aid 
from France. All he could secure 
was secret help in the shape of war 
material and money loans. The 
surrender of Burgoyne made suc¬ 
cess seem possible, even certain, 
for America if France would give 
her aid. So the French King openly 
espoused the cause of the Colonies 
and made a treaty of alliance, 1778. 

He recognized the independence of 
the colonies, increased his loans to 
them, and prepared to send a fleet 
and an army to America. This, of 
course, meant war between France and England. By the terms 
of the alliance neither the United States nor France could without 
the consent of the other treat with England. Before peace was 
restored Spain and Holland were also at war with England. 

Even before the French alliance, a number of Frenchmen 
came over to help the Americans in their struggle for inde¬ 
pendence. Chief among them was the 
Marquis de Lafayette, who served with 
distinction during the war. Among other 
foreigners who fought for the American 
cause were: Baron Steuben, a German 
officer who joined Washington’s army at 
Valley Forge and proved of great value 
as a drill-master; Baron DeKalb, a 
Frenchman who gave valiant service in 
the southern campaign; and two Polish 
officers, Kosciusko and Count Pulaski,. 
the former an engineer, the latter an officer at Brandywine, 
Charleston,.and at Savannah, where he lost his life. 

* Early in 1776 Silas Deane was sent to France to secure supplies. Late in the year 
Congress appointed Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee as commissioners to 
negotiate a treaty with France. 



General Lafayette. 



170 


History of the United States. 

WASHINGTON’S CAMPAIGNS (continued). 

Campaigns of Washington and Howe around Phila¬ 
delphia. — Battle of Brandywine. No events of any im¬ 
portance took place in the spring of 1777 between the two 
armies as they lay in winter quarters not many miles apart. 
There were some threatening movements but no battles. 
The British efforts to take Philadelphia by marching across 
New Jersey had failed because Washington blocked the way. 
Howe formed a new plan. Leaving Clinton in command at 
New York to help Burgoyne, he himself took 16,000 men by 
sea,* ascended the Chesapeake Bay to Elkton and then set 
out on foot for Philadelphia. When Washington learned of 
Howe’s movements, he started on a rapid march for Phila¬ 
delphia. Passing through Philadelphia, Chester and Wilming¬ 
ton, he took a stand at Chad’s Fort on Brandywine creek, 
to dispute the British advance. Here was fought the battle 
of Brandywine (September 11, 1777). Washington was de¬ 
feated and retreated to Philadelphia, and later to Pottstown. 
Congress fled first to Lancaster, then to York, Pennsylvania. 
The British entered Philadelphia September 26. 

Battle of Germantown. October 4, 1777, while some of 
the British were making an attack on Forts Mifflin and Mercer, 
which guarded the Delaware river, Washington fell upon the 
British army at Germantown (now part of Philadelphia), but 
was repulsed. Washington, though defeated, kept annoying 
the British; so Howe sent to New York for more troops. It 
was the intention to send such troops as could be spared from 
the New York army to Burgoyne’s relief, but instead they were 
now sent to Howe; thus Burgoyne was forced to wait until 
fresh troops could be brought from England, and they arrived 
too late to save him. 

Valley Forge, 1777-1778. Washington went into winter 
quarters at Valley Forge, twenty miles northwest of Phila¬ 
delphia. It was a winter of want and suffering. men were 

* As the fleet moved southward, signal-fires along the Jersey shore told of the progress 
of the fleet. The news was carried inland by messengers. The route by the Delaware 
river and bay would have been more direct, but the river was guarded by strong forts, so 
General Howe chose to go by way of the Chesapeake. 


Campaigns in the North. 


171 


in rags. Their marches could be traced by trails of blood left 
on the snow from sore and shoeless feet. In a letter to Con¬ 
gress, Washington said that 2,998 men were unfit for duty be¬ 
cause they were barefoot or otherwise naked. Often the soldiers 
went hungry. At one time there was no bread for three days. 
In three weeks of piercing cold, without fighting, they lost 
2,000 men from hardships and exposure. 

Yet amid all these sufferings, this band of patriots, oft de¬ 
feated but still unbroken in spirit, hung together. Never did 
braver or truer men under a greater leader bear arms for a better 
cause. 

The British at the same time were living in comfort, ease 
and plenty, in and around Philadelphia. 

Conway Cabal. In the midst of these misfortunes some 
of the officers formed a plot to displace Washington and ad¬ 
vance Gates to his command. The leader of this cabal* was 
Conway, hence the name, “Conway Cabal.” When the plot 
was exposed there was such a wave of indignation among the 
people, that it failed of its purpose. 

British Retreat and Battle of Monmouth. When the 
British learned of the French Alliance, and that a French fleet 
and army were on their way to enter Delaware Bay to co¬ 
operate with Washington, they took to their heels. Sir Henry 
Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, set out on a forced march 
for New York. Washington followed. By rapid marches he 
overtook'the British at Monmouth, June 28, 1778, and would 
no doubt have gained a splendid victory had it not been for 
the cowardice and treachery of an American General, Charles 
Lee.f At the moment when a wing of the British army could 
have been cut off, Lee disobeyed Washington’s orders, and, 
when the British opened fire, ordered a retreat. When Wash¬ 
ington arrived his soldiers faced about and put the British to 
flight. 

While in Philadelphia, the British officers were feasted and 

* A “cabal” is a secret association of persons to promote their own interests by intrigue. 

t General Lee was prisoner from December, 1776, to April, 1778. He was exchanged for 
General Prescott, a British officer. For his conduct at the battle of Monmouth Lee was 
sent to the rear, court-martialed, and later dismissed from service. 


172 


History of the United States. 


treated to a life of pleasure and gayety by those out of sym¬ 
pathy with the war. The day of reckoning came when Clin¬ 
ton withdrew from the city. No less than 3,000 loyalists, fear¬ 
ing to remain, went with him. Of those who remained a few 
were hanged and others banished. The main army of the 
British was now brought to New York. . Washington stretched 
his lines from Morristown to White Plains. For two years 
the respective forces were in this position without a general 
battle, but each sent reinforcements at times to other fields 
where conflicts were raging. 

Continental Paper Money. The hardships and difficulties 
were greatly increased because the new nation was without 
money and without the means of raising a sufficient amount 
to meet the expenses. It was practically forced to issue paper 
money. The first issue by Congress was in June, 1775, for 
$2,000,000. During the war, it issued $241,000,000.* In addition 
to this amount, the states printed nearly $210,000,000. These 
notes, state and national, were only promises to pay. The states 



fcmwmmas* 

Mj §SIX DOLLARS.^ 


IX s*s 

'"pHIS Bill entitles the! , 

JL Bearer to receive} *4 9 
SIX SfAlUSH MStX.EDPec.li 
DOLLARS, Of thdX-lp 
Value thereof in ColdU^-^ 
ior Silver . accenditg 
pa Refutation of C O N 


[ SIX DOLLARS. 


(Printed by 

| <f S < ££ & «J. 1777 . j 

BG8KW&88W8 


Continental Money, (front and back.) 

had no specie (gold or silver) with 
which to redeem the notes. Fear 

that the colonies might fail in the war for independence, or 
that they could not redeem the notes even if successful, caused 


* November, 1779, Congress voted not to have more than $200,000,000 of paper money 
in circulation. After this date, Congress issued no more currency. 










Campaigns in the North. 


173 


the paper money to be worth less than face value. The British 
helped to depreciate the money by putting counterfeit notes in 
circulation. In 1780 a dollar in coin was worth $40 in paper. The 
next year the rate was one to one hundred. From this circum¬ 
stance the expression, “Not worth a continental,” has come 
down to us from the Revolutionary days. So valueless had it 
become that in jest persons made use of it for papering barber¬ 
shops, for making sailors’ clothes, and for other grotesque pur¬ 
poses. 

The lack of money caused army officers to seize horses, 
wagons and supplies throughout the war, and give the owners 
certificates of value or notes of the government. 

Lack of Money Brings not only Suffering, but Mutiny. 
Because of the want of money, the troops were ragged, hungry, 
and unpaid. One author says: “The severest trial of the 
Revolution, in fact, was not in the field, where there were shouts 
to excite and laurels to be won; but in the squalid wretchedness 
of ill-provided camps, where there was nothing to cheer and 
everything to endure. To suffer was the lot of the Revolu¬ 
tionary soldier.” Several times the soldiers broke out in open 
revolt. In 1781, 1,000 men started from Princeton for Phil¬ 
adelphia to demand clothing and back pay. General Clinton 
sent messengers to invite them to join the British. The soldiers 
themselves hung several of these agents who tried to get them 
to abandon their flag. Happily, order was restored. Lafayette 
said of the soldiers: “Human patience has its limits. No 
European army would suffer the tenth 
part the Americans suffer. It takes 
citizens to endure hunger, nakedness, 
toil, and want of pay, which is the 
condition of our soldiers, the hardiest 
and most patient that are to be found 
in the world.” 

Robert Morris, a wealthy Phil¬ 
adelphia merchant, became Superin¬ 
tendent of Finances in 1781. Some 
relief was found through his wise and 



174 


History of the United States . 


able management in this period of distress. When no other 
funds were available, he used his own to support the credit of 
the nation. By his efforts the Bank of North America was 
established (1781), and became an aid in securing loans and in 
carrying on the finances of the nation. 

WAR ON THE WESTERN BORDER, INDIAN MASSACRES, NAVAL 
AND OTHER EVENTS. 

Newport, August, 1778. The French fleet followed the 
British to New York, but their largest ships could not pass 
over the bar to enter the harbor, so a movement was planned 
to drive the British from Newport, Rhode Island, by the com¬ 
bined efforts of the fleet and a land force under Sullivan. The 
English fleet went to protect Newport. Before a battle oc¬ 
curred, however, a great storm dispersed the rival fleets, greatly 
injuring some of the French ships. D’Estaing, the French 
admiral, took his fleet to Boston for repairs, and later went to 
the West Indies to protect French interests there, and Sullivan 
was obliged to retreat. 

Indian Massacres in Wyoming and Cherry Valleys. 

Meanwhile, the Tories and Indians of central and western New 
York took the war-path, burning property and murdering 
patriots. In the summer of 1778 a large force, led by John 
Butler, marched into the beautiful Wyoming valley in north¬ 
eastern Pennsylvania and committed frightful massacres. The 
same year Cherry Valley, New York, suffered a like fate at 
the hands of Tories and Indians, led by Joseph Brant. The 
next year General Sullivan with an army of 5,000 was sent by 
Washington to put an end to these bloody raids. Near where 
Elmira, New York, now stands'he administered a crushing defeat 
to the allied bands of Indians and Tories. He pursued the 
Indians to their haunts, burned some forty of their villages, 
killed many, and put the survivors to flight. 

War in Kentucky and Tennessee. While these stirring 
events were occurring in the colonies, pioneers went into the 
territory west of the mountains to win it for the American cause. 
Among these was Daniel Boone, a noted frontiersman, who in 


Campaigns in the North. 


17 5 


1775, with other pioneers, moved into this region. The next 
year, when the legislature of Virginia created the county of 
Kentucky, these pioneers waged successful war against the 
Indian allies of the British. John Sevier and James Robertson 
were prominent in defeating the Cherokee Indians in the 
territory which later became Tennessee. 

George Rogers Clark. But more noted were the services 
of George Rogers Clark, a Virginian, who had settled in Ken¬ 
tucky. Acting under the authority 
of Patrick Henry, governor of Vir¬ 
ginia, he performed a great service 
to the nation in winning the country 
north of the Ohio river. Clark 
secretly raised an army of volunteers 
and marched against the British 
posts north of the Ohio. Descend¬ 
ing that river from Pittsburg to the 
mouth of the Cumberland, he 
marched across the country, taking 
possession of the towns and forts, 
and made a friendly call on the 
Spaniards at St. Louis. He then marched to Vincennes, where he 
met and defeated General Hamilton, the British commandant, 
who had come from Detroit with 500 men to aid in the defense 
of Vincennes. The British power was thus completely broken 
south of the lakes. These victories gave the colonies at the 
end of the war a claim to the territory as far west as the Mis¬ 
sissippi. 

Capture of Savannah, 1778. In the latter part of 1778 
the British sent an army away from the main field of the war to 
invade the thinly settled state of Georgia. Colonel Campbell 
sailed from New York, and General Ptevost marched from 
Florida, each with an army. They captured Savannah in 
December. Prevost advanced, and took Augusta. By the end 
of 1779, Georgia was reduced to submission and a royal governor 
again placed in charge of the colony. 

Attempt to Recapture Savannah. Count D’Estaing, com- 



176 


History of the United States. 



Route of George Rogers Clark. 

This expedition had much to do with securing the Mississippi river for the western 
boundary of the United States at the close of the Revolutionary War. 


manding the French fleet, and General Lincoln, in command 
of the American troops, tried to recapture Savannah (1779). 
After a siege of three weeks they foolishly assaulted the works, 
only to meet defeat with heavy losses, as the British were 
strongly fortified. Among the dead were Count Pulaski and 
D’Estaing himself. 

Stony Point and Paulus Hook. To make the Hudson 
more secure, Washington had built two forts above West 
Point, one at Stony Point and the other at Verplanck’s Point. 
The British seized Stony Point before it was completed. Wash¬ 
ington sent General “Mad Anthony” Wayne to recapture it. 
At midnight, July 15, 1779, 1,200 picked men, carrying empty 
guns, climbed the steep sides of the precipice, and with fixed bay¬ 
onets in a brilliant charge captured the fort and 500 prisoners. 

Another daring exploit was achieved by Harry Lee, popularly 









Campaigns in the North. 


177 


called “ Light Horse Harry,” when he stormed and captured 
Paulus Hook (1779), a fort on the Jersey side opposite New 
York, from which the British had been making raids among 
the Jersey farmers. 

During the same year Clinton had sent a marauding expedi¬ 
tion to plunder^and ravage the farms and towns of Connecticut, 
expecting to draw Washington from New York; but news of the 
British disaster at Stony Point put an end to this movement. 

Thus we see that Washington and Clinton were playing the 
war game in more than one way. 

Arnold’s Treason. In the midst of these conflicts, Benedict 
Arnold, one of the bravest and ablest of the American generals, 
who had distinguished himself at Quebec and Saratoga and gave 
promise of still greater service to the nation, was placed in 
command at Philadelphia (1778), after the British went to 
New York. Here he married the daughter of a prominent 
Tory and lived beyond his means. He chose methods to raise 
money which were not becoming his office. He was tried by 
court-martial and sentenced to be reprimanded, which Wash¬ 
ington did in a mild manner. Smarting under this deserved 
rebuke and nursing an ignoble revenge, Arnold conceived the 
traitorous design of betraying his country. At his own re¬ 
quest, Washington, who had every confidence in him, placed 
him in command at West Point (1780), a stronghold on the 
Hudson. Here he resumed a correspondence with the British, 
which had previously been started, offering to surrender West 
Point. Major Andre, Adjutant-General of the British army, 
met Arnold near Stony Point to arrange the terms of surrender. 
On his way back, Andre was arrested by three Americans who 
were watching for British cattle-thieves. In his stockings they 
found papers in Arnold’s handwriting. News of the arrest 
came to Arnold in time to enable him to reach the British army. 
From the British he received a large sum of money, and served 
as an officer in their army to the end of the war, fighting his own 
countrymen. At the close he took refuge in England, and 
ended his days in sorrow and remorse. Andre was hung as a 
spy- 


178 


History of the United States. 


The Navy in the Revolution. Late in 1775 Congress 
ordered that thirteen war vessels be built. Before these were 
finished, several merchant vessels were fitted up and sailed 
from Philadelphia to prey on British commerce in the West 
Indies. Each of the seacoast states fitted out one or more 
fighting-ships. Soon after the Declaration of Independence 
Congress issued “letters of marque and reprisal,” which gave 
the right to private persons to fit out ships to seize the enemy’s 
vessels, and share with the government the fruits of such vic¬ 
tories. In this way much damage was done to British com¬ 
merce. The American navy could in no way cope with the 
formidable British fleets, but could only prey on unguarded 
merchantmen or detached cruisers. Nearly all of the American 
vessels were captured or destroyed before the close of the war, 
but the French fleets became a powerful factor in winning in¬ 
dependence. 

Paul Jones. The most brilliant of all victories on the sea 
was achieved by Paul Jones. In command of the little Ranger 

(1778) he made one of the most 
remarkable cruises in naval his¬ 
tory, darting in and out of the 
coast of the British Isles, setting 
fire to shipping, destroying four 
British vessels, capturing an armed 
cruiser, and returning in safety to 
France. 

In 1779, by the aid of Franklin, 
commissioner to France, Jones ob¬ 
tained a fleet of five ships in France 
and set out to prey on British 
vessels. His flag-ship was named 
Bon Homme Richard (the good 
man Richard), in honor of Franklin’s “Poor Richard’s Al¬ 
manac.” He captured or destroyed ship after ship. When near 
Flamboro Head he met a fleet of British merchantmen at night, 
convoyed by the frigate Serapis, greatly superior to the Richard. 
A terrific fight took place. Both ships were set on fire—the 



Paul Jones. 


Campaigns in the North. 


179 


Serapis at least ten times. The Richard was riddled with shot. 
Jones lashed the two ships together so neither could escape. It 
was a life-or-death struggle, one of the most desperate in naval 
annals. At the end of three hours the British surrendered. The 
Richard was sinking. Paul Jones transferred his crew to the 
Serapis and sailed away, in the prize he had won, while the Bon 
Homme Richard went to the bottom of the sea. 


•Suggestions for Review. 

Give the plans of the British. Tell of Burgoyne’s Invasion. Of Ben¬ 
nington. Of Burgoyne’s Surrender. Of Fort Stanwix. What were the 
results? Tell of the French Alliance. Tell of the British movements to 
take Philadelphia, and Washington’s defense. What battles were fought? 
Where did the American Army spend the winter of 1777-1778? What 
led to the Battle of Monmouth? What kinds of money were in use during 
the war? What caused it to depreciate? How did the lack of money 
affect the war? Give an account of the American navy and of the heroism 
of Paul Jones. 

Tell something of the following named persons and places: Robert 
Morris, Daniel Boone, George Rogers Clark, Benedict Arnold, John Stark, 
St. Leger, Daniel Morgan, Layafette, Baron Steuben, Sir Henry Clinton; 
Saratoga, Brandywine, Valley Forge, Wyoming Valley, Stony Point. 


CHAPTER XIV. 

CAMPAIGNS IN THE SOUTH. 

General Plans and Capture of Charleston. The Brit¬ 
ish had made but little progress in the North. Their success 
on a small scale in Georgia had encouraged them to transfer 
the main seat of the war to the South. With the aid of a 
large Tory element, they hoped to take South Carolina, then 
North Carolina, and move north, subduing one state at a time. 
In 1780 Clinton and Cornwallis sailed from New York for the 
South with 8,000 men. They laid siege to Charleston, then 
the chief city of the South, which was defended by an Amer¬ 
ican force under General Lincoln. After a long siege and a 
bombardment lasting forty-eight hours, Lincoln was forced to 
surrender (May 12, 1780) his army of 3,000 troops. This was 
a serious blow to the American cause. Hundreds of persons 
took the oath of allegiance to King George, and it seemed that 
South Carolina was lost. 

In June Clinton returned to New York with part of the 
army, leaving Cornwallis in command to prosecute the war. 
Before leaving he wrote: “ There are few men in South Caro¬ 
lina who are not either our prisoners or in arms with us.” 

Invasion of South Carolina. — Battle of Camden. From 
Charleston Cornwallis moved northwest across the state, 
scouring the country, taking the oath of allegiance from the 
inhabitants, and enlisting Tories. An American army was 
organized at Hillsboro, North Carolina.* Gates, the “hero of 
Saratoga,” was put in command by Congress, contrary to the 
wishes of Washington. The army moved forward and confronted 
Cornwallis at Camden. Here Gates met a crushing defeat, 
August 16, 1780,—the most overwhelming that had yet been 

* DeKalb was sent with the'Maryland and Delaware troops. The militia of the south¬ 
ern states was collected, and Washington sent his Virginia and North Carolina troops. 

180 


Campaigns in the South. 


181 



Nathanael Greene. 


given to an American army. In fact, his force was practically dis¬ 
persed ; but from its remnants and from fresh recruits, a new 
army was formed at Charlotte. Nathan¬ 
ael Greene, an able general, was put in 
command. Cornwallis advanced, boast¬ 
ing that he would soon conquer all the 
. states south of the Susquehanna river. 

He sent out side expeditions to whip the 
colonists into line. The most noted one 
of these was led by Colonel Tarleton; 
another was commanded by Major Fer¬ 
guson. 

Battle of King’s Mountain. The 
British advanced into the region where 
Tories were few and patriot sharpshooters many. These 
sharpshooters from the backwoods drove Ferguson’s men to 
the top of King’s Mountain, and on October 7, 1780, stormed 
the mountain, killing or capturing the entire British force of 
1,100 men. Ferguson was killed. The patriot loss was very 
small. What Bennington was in the North, King’s Mountain 
was in the South. 

Battle of Cowpens'. General Greene, after taking com¬ 
mand (December, 1780), divided his small army, sending 
Daniel Morgan to the southwest to harass Cornwallis and to 
secure patriot recruits. Cornwallis, however, sent Tarleton 
to dispose of Morgan. The two armies met at Cowpens, 
January 17, 1781. With superb skill, Morgan gave a crushing 
defeat to the British, killing, wounding and capturing as many 
as were in his own command. Tarleton was wounded in a 
personal encounter with Colonel Washington,* but escaped 
with less than 300 men. 

Morgan’s Retreat. Cornwallis hastened in a confident 
attempt to capture Morgan’s army before Morgan could unite 


* Colonel Washington was a distant relation of George Washington. Some months 
after the battle, Tarleton, when speaking to a Mrs. Jones, a witty American lady, said: 
‘‘Colonel Washington is very illiterate. I am told he cannot write his name.” ‘‘Oh, 
Colonel,” said she, ‘‘you bear evidence that he can make his mark,” referring to the scar 
which he bore as a result of an encounter with Washington. 



182 


History of the United States. 



Trace the movements of the British army from New York to Charleston; to Camden and 
Charlotte. Note movements of Ferguson, Tarleton, and Gates; note Morgan’s retreat 
from Cowpens to Guilford Court House, and Greene’s march to the same place from 
Cheraw. Trace the British pursuit; locate the battle of Guilford Court House; trace 
the British march to Wilmington; Greene’s recovery of South Carolina and Georgia by 
way of Hobkirk’s Hill, Ninety-Six, and Eutaw Springs; the British march from Wilming¬ 
ton to Virginia, and surrender at Yorktown. 

Tell a connected story of plans, marches, victories and defeats. 










Campaigns in the South. 


183 


with Greene. The three armies raced northward, Morgan 
closely pursued by Cornwallis, and Greene hastening to his 
rescue from Chef aw; but Morgan escaped across the streams, 
which were flooded, to Guilford Court House, where Greene 
joined him and took command, conducting the retreat across 
the Dan river into Virginia, where he was reinforced. 

Retreat of Cornwallis. Greene then returned to North 
Carolina, and attacked Cornwallis at Guilford Court House 
(now Greensboro), March 15, 1781. Cornwallis held the field, 
but lost one-third of his army. Patriots rose in force around 
him. Only with great difficulty could he get food for his army. 
Facing these and other dangers, he felt he could not risk an¬ 
other battle, so he marched to Wilmington, the nearest sea¬ 
port, for supplies. After resting his army at Wilmington, he 
moved northward into Virginia, where Arnold, the traitor, 
was in command of the British forces. 



Partisan Leaders. In addition to the regular army, some¬ 
times independent of it, and sometimes working with it, bands 
of patriots carried on a merciless guerilla warfare against the 


184 


History of the United States. 


enemy. The most famous of them were Francis Marion, Thomas 
Sumter, Henry Lee, and Andrew Pickens. They knew every road 
and by-path. There was no telling where a blow from these 
active, fearless leaders would fall next. From swamp -and moun¬ 
tain retreat they darted forth, striking British outposts, assailing 
the rear or flank of an army with fury, falling upon detached 
parties of British, or inflicting dire punishment on bands of 
Tories. Their daring and vigilance had much to do with keep¬ 
ing the cause of freedom alive, and in finally recovering the 
South from the grip of the British. 

Greene Recovers South Carolina. Greene followed Corn¬ 
wallis for fifty miles after the battle of Guilford Court House, 
then turned his attention to recovering South Carolina and 
Georgia. At Hobkirk’s Hill, near Camden, he fought an 
obstinate and indecisive battle with a British force under Lord 
Rawdon, April 25, 1781. Aided by Marion, Sumter and Lee, 
the Americans scurried over the country, taking post after 
post. The last battle in this region was fought at Eutaw 
Springs, September 8, 1781. The British were finally driven 
into Savannah and Charleston, under the protection of their 
fleet. 

Campaign in Virginia. Arriving in Virginia, Cornwallis, 
outranking Arnold, took command of all the forces and made 
raids here and there, destroying large amounts of property, 
public and private. To oppose him was an army under Gen¬ 
eral Lafayette, too small to offer serious resistance, but ac¬ 
tive enough to keep the British busy in vain attempts to run 
it down and capture it. Finally, upon receiving reinforce¬ 
ments, Lafayette took the offensive. But about this time 
Cornwallis received a message from Clinton, directing him to 
fortify some place along the coast, so aid might be sent from 
one place to another, when needed. He selected Yorktown, 
which he began to fortify in August, 1781. Lafayette posted 
his army eight miles away. 

Strategy of Washington, and Surrender of Cornwallis. 

Washington at this very time was planning an attack on New 
York, which had been weakened by the withdrawal of detach- 



Campaigns in the South. 185 

merits to the South. A French fleet under Count Rochambeau 
was to assist. When Washington learned that Cornwallis 
had taken a position at Yorktown, and that a large French 
fleet, under De Grasse, would soon sail up the Chesapeake, he 
changed his plans. Feigning an attack on New York to de¬ 
ceive the British, he slipped away on a forced march for York¬ 
town, arriving at Philadelphia before Clinton learned his pur¬ 
pose. From Philadelphia he moved to Elkton. Here his 
troops were placed on French transports, awaiting them, and 
were carried to Williamsburg, where they joined Lafayette’s 
army. Already the French fleet had blocked the bay, and cut 
off escape by water. Washington and Lafayette with 14,000 
French and American troops shut off retreat by land. The 
British were hemmed in, their food supply^was cut off, and 
escape was impossible. Starvation or surrender was the alter¬ 
native. Clinton sent 7,000 men to the relief of Cornwallis, 
but it was too late. The day they left New York, Cornwallis 
surrendered his army of 8,000 men, October 19, 1781. 


Surrender of Cornwallis. 

The allied army was drawn up in two columns over a mile long, facing 
each other. On the one side were the French, on the other side were the 




186 


History of the United States. 


Americans. At the head of one was Washington, at the head of the other 
was Count Rochambeau. Between these columns the British army 
marched, with solemn tread, as their drums beat time to the tune, “The 
World Turned Upside Down.” General O’Harra rode up to General 
Washington and informed him that Cornwallis could not be present. 
Washington directed General Lincoln, who had surrendered to Cornwallis 
at Charleston, now to receive the sword of Cornwallis. 

Effect of the Surrender. The news of the surrender 
of Cornwallis made the colonists wild with delight. A wave 
of rejoicing swept over the land. When the news reached Phil¬ 
adelphia near midnight, Old Liberty Bell rang out, and soon 
the streets were filled with crowds of happy people. Congress 
met in a church to give thanks to God, and designated De¬ 
cember 13 as a day for national thanksgiving. 

When the news reached England, Lord North said, “Oh, 
God! It is all over!” The King wished to continue the con¬ 
flict, but the people were tired of war, and Parliament the next 
spring took measures to end it. Clinton was relieved of com¬ 
mand. Sir Guy Carleton succeeded him, with instructions to 
bring the war to a close. 

Commissioners from the United States and England met 
at Paris, and, in November, 1782, agreed on terms of peace; 
but the treaty was not finally signed until September 3, 1783. 

John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and John Jay were the 
peace commissioners. The treaty was made with Great Britain 
without the consent of France. This was in violation of the 
alliance treaty of 1778. The commissioners believed that 
France wished to limit the United States to the territory east 
of the Alleghany Mountains, in the interests of Spain, her ally 
against England; so the commissioners treated secretly with 
England, and induced her to agree to the Mississippi as our 
boundary. England did not sign the Treaty of Paris until 
she had agreed on terms of peace with both Spain and France. 

The Treaty of Paris, 1783. The important provisions of 
the Treaty of Paris were: 

1. Great Britain recognized the independence of the United 
States, and agreed to withdraw all armies, fleets and garrisons 
with convenient speed. 


Campaigns in the South. 


187 


2. The United States was given the right to fish off the coasts 
of Canada and Newfoundland. 

3. All debts contracted before the war by merchants of 
either nation were to be paid. (Nearly all these debts were 
due British merchants.) 



4. Congress was to recom¬ 
mend to the legislatures of 
the states that they should 
restore the confiscated prop¬ 
erty of “real British sub¬ 
jects/’ and of loyalists who 
did not take arms against 
the United States, and that 
other Tories should have a 
year’s time to try to recover 
their property. (The legis¬ 
latures never restored the 
property; but the British 
government made liberal 
land grants to many who 
settled in Canada.) 

5. Each nation, so far as the other was concerned, was to 
have free navigation of the Mississippi river. (This was for 
a time a dead letter, for Spain owned the land on both sides 
of the mouth of the river, and so had absolute control of the 
entrance.) 

6. The boundaries of the United States* were fixed at the 
Mississippi on the west; Spanish Florida on the south; and 
the present boundary on the north. 

By a separate treaty, England ceded the Floridas (East 
Florida and West Florida) to Spain. Spain claimed that West 
Florida extended as far north as the mouth of the Yazoo, in¬ 
stead of the 31st parallel, and for twelve years held the towns 
in that territory. 


Confiscated Property of a Tory. 

This property was confiscated because it 
was the home of a Tory, Abram Zabriskie, and 
was awarded to Baron Steuben for services in 
the Revolutionary War. It is in northeast 
New Jersey, bordering the Hackensack river, 
near where Washington’s army crossed. The 
house was built in 1734, and is in a good state 
of preservation today. Steuben later sold the 
property to its original owner for $15,000. 


* See exact boundaries, p. 188. 






188 


History of the United States. 



The United States at the Close of the Revolutionary War. 

Exact Boundary. From the mouth of St. Croix river to its source; thence due 
north to the Highlands, following the Highlands to the source of the Connecticut river; 
down the Connecticut to the 45th parallel; thence west to the St. Lawrence; up the St. 
Law'rence to Lake Ontario; through Lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, Huron, Superior, and 
through Pigeon river, Rainy Lake, and Rainy river, to the northwest corner of the Lake 
of the Woods; thence south to the source of the Mississippi; down the Mississippi to the 
31st parallel; due east to the Chattahoochee river; down the Chattahoochee to its con¬ 
fluence with the Flint; eastward to the source of the St. Mary’s river; and along the St. 
Mary’s to the ocean. 


















Campaigns in the South. 


189 


Cost of the War. It is very difficult to arrive at the exact 
cost of the Revolution, as no official records were kept. Es¬ 
timates place the amount spent by America at $140,000,000; 
by France, for America, at $60,000,000; and by England, 
$500,000,000. 

Getting money was one of the most perplexing questions of 
the war. Congress tried to obtain it for immediate use: 1. 
By loans, foreign and domestic; 2. By taxation; 3. By issuing 
paper money. 

The amount raised by foreign loans during the war was nearly 
$8,000,000* and by domestic loans about $12,000,000. The 
balance of the expenditures was met by issuing paper money 
and certificates of value. 

Suggestions for Review. 

Tell a connected story of the movements of the British army from 
Charleston to Yorktown, giving plans, battles, and results. Tell of the 
surrender of Cornwallis. Give the six provisions of the treaty of 1783. 
What were the boundaries of the United State? by this treaty? 


* Of this sum France loaned $6,352,500; Holland, $1,304,000; and Spain, $174,017. 


CHAPTER XV. 

FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 


Continental Congress and Formation of State Consti¬ 
tutions. The Continental Congress was the central governing 
body during the war. It had, however, no precedent to follow 
and no constitution to guide it, and was without power to en¬ 
force its own acts. With only the power to advise or recom¬ 
mend, it was a poor and ineffective governing body. 

After the Declaration of Independence, each colony became 
in effect a free, independent state. The people in each state— 
excepting in Connecticut and Rhode Island, which retained 
their charters—chose representatives who met and drew up a 
plan of government, called the state constitution. The govern¬ 
ment in each state was divided into three branches: the legis¬ 
lative or law-making, the judicial or law-judging, and the 
executive or law-enforcing. 

Articles of Confederation Prepared. On June 12, 1776,* 

Congress appointed a committee to draft Articles of Confedera¬ 
tion to govern the new nation, the United States of America. 
Congress did not agree on the Articles of Confederation until 
November, 1777, more than a year after the appointment of the 
committee. The Articles were then referred to the individual 
states, and, before they could become the law of the land, had 
to be adopted by every one of the thirteen states. The states 
were slow in ratifying the Articles. Having been oppressed by 
one government, they were cautious lest they should be made 
to suffer in the same way by another. 

Some of the states that had definite western boundaries, like 
Delaware and Maryland, refused to approve the Articles unless 
the states which had claims to western lands would place such 

* This was one day after the committee was appointed to write the Declaration of 
Independence. 


190 





















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'CLAIMED 

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TERRITORIAL CLAIMS 

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New Orleal 












Formation of the Constitution. 


191 


land under the control of Congress. The states finally agreed 
to do this, and Maryland, the last of the colonies, ratified 
March 1, 1781. The Articles of Confederation became the 
fundamental law of the United States, March 2, 1781. 

Claims to the Western Land. Seven states—Massachu¬ 
setts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, and Georgia—had claims on the land west of the Ap¬ 
palachian Mountains. The charters of six of these gave them 
the land from “sea to sea.” When the Mississippi river be¬ 
came the western boundary of the United States, they no longer 
claimed from “sea to sea,” but from the Atlantic to the Mis¬ 
sissippi. New York, the seventh, claimed land west of its 
charter border, the Delaware river, by rights purchased of the 
Iroquois Indians. All states ceded their rights to the United 
States. All the vast region between the mountains and the 
Mississippi river then became the property of the national 
government, and was called the “Public Domain.” The land 
was to be surveyed and divided into sections, townships, and 
ranges. Out of it Congress was to form new states which were 
to come into the Union on an equal footing with the thirteen 
original states. The land was to be sold and the money used 
to pay the debts of the government. People flocked into 
the new country. Later, territories were formed and new states 
admitted to the Union. 

The Northwest Territory. The land lying west of Penn¬ 
sylvania and north of the Ohio river was organized by Congress, 
in 1787, into a territory which has ever since been called the 
Northwest Territory, and the organic act is known as the 
Ordinance of 1787. 

Ordinance of 1787. The year 1787 is famous in our history. 
It is the year in which the Constitution, the greatest document 
of the age, was drafted, and the year in which the first law for 
territorial government, the Ordinance of 1787, was passed. 

The important provisions of this Ordinance were: 

1. A form of government for the Northwest Territory. Con¬ 
gress was to appoint a governor, secretary, and judges. Neither 
property nor religious qualifications were nor could be required 


192 


History of the United States. 



New York ceded its claims in 1781; Virginia in 1784; Massachusetts, 1785 ; Con- 
neticut, 1786; South Carolina, 1781; North Carolina, 1790; and Georgia, 1802. Con¬ 
necticut kept a strip of land in northeast Ohio, called “The Western Reserve,” but in 1800 
she ceded the right of jurisdiction to the government but retained the ownership of the 
land. Virginia reserved two tracts of land north of the Ohio : one between the Scioto and 
Miami rivers, which was a military reservation for Revolutionary soldiers; the other in 
southern Indiana, which was given to George Rogers Clark and his soldiers. 


of voters. Lands were to be purchased of the Indians. One 
delegate was to be sent to Congress, who was allowed the right 
to debate but not to vote. 

2. The Territory should eventually be divided into not less 
than three nor more than five states, each of which upon reach¬ 
ing a population of 60,000 should be admitted to the Union. 












Formation of the Constitution. 


193 


3. Slavery and involuntary servitude were forever prohibited 
except as a punishment for crime.* (Confinement in jails, re¬ 
formatories, and penitentiaries, is involuntary servitude.) 

4. Schools and the means of education were to be encouraged, f 
because “religion, morality and knowledge are necessary to 
good government. ,, 

5. No person behaving himself in a peaceable and orderly 
manner could be molested on account of his worship or religious 
sentiments. 

The Articles of Confederation. By 1787 the weakness of 
the Articles of Confederation and the need of a stronger govern¬ 
ment became more and more apparent. At the time of the 
adoption of the Articles, the people were attached to their re¬ 
spective states. They magnified state pride. To be a citizen 
of the state was a prouder distinction than to be a citizen of 
the republic. With this feeling the members of Congress re¬ 
served much power for the states, and gave but little power to 
the general government. The states were supreme. Jealousy, 
strife and business confusion existed. The hopes and desires 
for a prosperous nation were not realized. Independence and 
freedom had not brought national happiness and greatness. 
For seven years the colonists struggled through the hardships 
of war. For six years more they tried in vain, under the Articles 
of Confederation, to unite the thirteen states into one nation. 

Provisions. The Articles of Confederation gave Congress 
power: 1. To declare war and to make peace. 2. To regulate 
foreign affairs, to manage postoffices, to keep an army and 
navy, to settle disputes between states, to manage Indian 
affairs, to issue and to borrow money, to recommend that states 
raise money to pay the debts, and to meet the current expenses 
of the government. 

Weakness of the Articles of Confederation. 1. The 

* Slaves escaping from other states into the Territory might be returned to their owners. 

t The plan of setting apart certain sections of land in each township for school purposes 
was part of an Act passed by Congress in 1785, and related to all western lands ceded by 
the states to the general government. Ohio was the first state to take advantage of the 
act. Section 16 of every township was set aside in her constitution (1802) for school 
purposes. 


194 


History of the United States. 


most serious defect was the fact that Congress could not enforce 
its own laws. It could recommend that the states raise 'money, 
but it could not compel them to pay; so the national govern¬ 
ment could not pay its expenses. Congress could say, “ Please 
do this” and “Please do that,” and if the states saw fit, it was 
done; if not, Congress was helpless. It could make treaties, 
but could not enforce them. Congress could not preserve order 
at home nor command respect abroad, because it could not 
punish individual citizens nor compel states to obey its laws. 

2. There were no national courts to pass upon questions which 
affected the whole people. 

3. Congress could not control trade between the states or 
with foreign nations. Each state made its own laws regulating 
commerce. There were no uniform tariff laws. States would 
bid against each other in admitting foreign goods. If several 
states combined to fix a uniform price, another would lower the 
rate and secure the imports. States even taxed goods brought 
from neighboring states. These in turn would retaliate by 
placing a duty on goods shipped to them from the offending 
states. 

4. Each State had but one vote, and from two to seven dele¬ 
gates, in Congress. This gave the small states as much power 
as the large ones. Nine votes out of thirteen were necessary for 
the passage of important laws. One state out of nine present 
could defeat a measure. 

These conditions led to strife, uncertainty, bitterness. Trade 
was disturbed and business was at a standstill. 

Drifting on a Sea of Trouble.— Finance. After the close 
of the Revolution, our import duties, which had to be paid in 
specie, were much greater than our exports. The country was 
therefore drained of nearly all its gold and silver. The nation 
was without mints and gold and silver mines, and so without 
specie money. For relief, seven of the states printed paper 
money, but people would not accept it at face value; so some 
states passed laws designed to compel persons to take it under 
penalty of imprisonment. Still the money depreciated. 

Troubles with Foreign Nations. In addition to the dis- 


Formation of the Constitution. 195 

tress and perils at home, there were troubles with foreign 
nations. 

Spain still held territory north of the 31st parallel and east 
of the Mississippi, which England had ceded to the United 
States. 

Both England and the United States violated the treaty of 
Paris. The states refused to obey the provision of the treaty 
which required the payment of debts contracted before the 
war. England on the other hand refused to abandon the forts 
and trading-posts in the Northwest, which helped to secure a 
valuable fur trade with the Indians and were a means of holding 
their friendship. Nations had frequently gone to war for less 
cause than this. 

The outlook for the nation was gloomy indeed. Debts, 
want of money, foreign trouble, paralyzed trade, business de¬ 
pression, discontent of the people, and, worst of all, a helpless 
central government, made wise men fear the result. 

The Annapolis Trade Convention. In this dark hour, 
Virginia, under the influence of James Madison, proposed that 
the delegates from the different states meet at Annapolis in 
September, 1786, to consider the state of American trade and 
all questions relating thereto. Only five states sent delegates.* 
These delegates saw clearly that even if all the states .should 
agree on plans for improving trade, there would be no central 
power to enforce the agreements. So they decided to call a 
great national convention to meet at Philadelphia in May, 1787, 
for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation. This 
call for a convention was indorsed by Congress the following 
February. 

Shays’s Rebellion. At the very time that* the trade con¬ 
vention was in session in Maryland, a rebellion was in progress 
in Massachusetts. A large number of persons were heavily 
in debt and unable to pay interest and taxes. Their stock and 
.farms were sold by sheriffs, and some persons were thrown into 

* Virginia, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Not a delegate 
came from the New England States. Although the meeting was held in Annapolis, no 
Maryland delegates were present. 


196 History of the United States. 

prison. The people became desperate. In the central part of the 
state, Daniel Shays headed an army of nearly two thousand 
farmers, who seized the arsenal at Springfield, broke up the 
court, put a stop to law-suits for debts, destroyed property, and 
threatened greater violence. For some weeks they defied the 
authority of the state. The governor, however, sent a strong 
force of militia, which put an end to the disturbance. 

The Constitutional Convention. Fifty-five delegates, 
representing every state in the Union excepting Rhode Island, 
met in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 1787. The Con¬ 
vention sat behind closed doors from May till September. 
Among the delegates were some of the ablest and wisest men of 
the time—George Washington, James Madison, Benjamin 
Franklin, Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris, Alexander Hamil¬ 
ton, Roger Sherman, Rufus King, Edmund Randolph, James 
Wilson, and others. Washington was chosen president. They 
soon gave up all hope of revising the Articles of Confederation, 
and prepared to draft a new constitution with three depart¬ 
ments of government: the legislative, executive, and judicial. 

Plans. While the delegates were assembling, Madison, 
Randolph and a few others drew the Outlines of a constitution. 
This was called “the Virginia plan,” as the chairman of the 
Virginia delegation presented it to the Convention. Another, 
drawn by the delegates from some of the smaller states, which 
was little more than a revision of the Articles, was presented 
by the delegates from New Jersey, hence called “the New 
Jersey plan.” Alexander Hamilton of New York presented 
another, which gave very great powers to the central govern¬ 
ment. The convention selected the Virginia plan as a basis 
for a new constitution. Every article was carefully considered, 
debated at length, and many compromises were made before 
the Constitution was accepted. 

Compromises. The most important questions upon which 
compromises were reached were : 

First. How many persons should represent each state in 
Congress. The delegates agreed that Congress should consist of a 
Senate and a House of Representatives. The populous states 


Formation of the Constitution. 


197 


wished to determine the number of members in each house by 
the number of people in each state. But the small states in¬ 
sisted that all states should have the same number, irrespective 
of size or population. After long discussion a delegate from 
Connecticut proposed that each state should have two senators, 
but that representatives in the lower house and direct taxes 
should vary according to population. This was accepted. 
They also agreed that representatives should be elected by the 
people for two years, and senators should be elected by the 
state legislatures for six years. 

Second. Who should be counted in each state in fixing the 
number of representatives? The South said, count all per¬ 
sons, including slaves. The North was opposed to counting 
the slaves for this purpose unless they were also counted for 
levying taxes. They finally compromised by concluding to 
count three-fifths of the slaves for reckoning the number of 
representatives and for fixing direct taxes in the states. 

Third. How far should Congress control commerce between 
states? Most delegates wanted Congress to control com¬ 
merce, but they could not agree as to how far this control should 
go. Southern states feared that if Congress were given the 
power to regulate commerce it might be used to tax exports, 
which would destroy southern trade. Some of the southern 
states wished also to continue to import slaves; others, north 
and south, opposed it. Again a compromise was made. Con¬ 
gress was given the power “To regulate commerce with foreign 
nations and among the states and with Indian tribes,” but 
no tax could ever be laid on exports from any state and the 
slave trade was not to be prohibited before 1808. (See Con¬ 
stitution, p. 207.) These are often called the three great com¬ 
promises. 

Plan of Choosing a President. There were many dif¬ 
ferent views as to how the President should be elected and how 
long he should serve. The delegates finally agreed that he 
should be elected for four years by electors chosen in such man¬ 
ner as the states should decide. Each state should choose 
electors equal to the number of senators and representatives 


198 


History of the United States. 


it had in Congress. Each elector cast his vote for two persons. 
The person receiving the highest number of votes, “if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of electors ap¬ 
pointed/’ became President, and the one receiving the next 
highest number of votes became Vice-President. The votes 
were to be sent sealed to the president of the Senate. 

This method of choosing the President was not satisfactory, 
so an amendment was made to the Constitution (Amendment 
XII, 1804), which required the electors to vote for President and 
Vice-President by separate ballotings. (See Constitution.) 

Thirty-nine delegates signed the Constitution, thirteen left 
before the convention closed, and three refused to sign. 

The Constitution before the People. The Convention 
sent the Constitution to Congress and Congress sent it. to the 
state legislatures. These legislatures asked the people to elect 
delegates to conventions in each state to accept or reject the 
Constitution. The people were divided. The outcome was 
doubtful almost to the end. The votes of nine states were 
necessary to put the Constitution into effect. But by July, 
1788, eleven states ratified. North Carolina and Rhode Island 
did not ratify until after Washington became President. The 
prospect of passing from a poor, weak government to a strong 
and more adequate one was a cause for public rejoicing. Great 
celebrations were held in New York and many other cities. 

Federalist. Some of the arguments favoring the adoption of 
the Constitution were published in the newspapers, under the 
title of The Federalist and with the signature of “Publius.” 
These were written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, and after¬ 
ward were bound in a volume,—one of the most famous works 
ever written on the science of government. 

Political Parties. During the Revolutionary War the 
people were bound together, fighting for a common cause. They 
lost sight of political differences in their effort to gain inde¬ 
pendence. After this was closed, the people took different 
views of self-government. Those who favored the adoption 
of the new Constitution were called the “Federalists.” They 
believed in a strong Federal government and wanted Congress 


Formation of the Constitution. 


199 


to have enough power to regulate trade, raise revenue, and to 
make and enforce laws. 

Those who opposed the adoption of the Constitution were 
called “ Anti-Federalists.” They would not have a strong 
central government, and desired more power left with the in¬ 
dividual states. They believed that too much power placed 
in the hands of a few, would tead again to monarchy. Through 
their influence Congress, in 1789, proposed amendments* to 
the Constitution, guaranteeing certain rights and privileges 
to the people. Ten of these were adopted by the states and 
became part of the Constitution, 1791. These are sometimes 
called the “Bill of Rights,” and guarantee freedom of speech 
and religion, and secure personal and property rights. 

Loose and Strict Constructionists. Opposition to the 
constitution now ceased, but the people began to interpret its 
meaning differently. They disagreed as to what laws were best. 
The Anti-Federalists held to a “strict” construction of the Con¬ 
stitution, and believed that Congress had authority to do only 
the things named in the Constitution. They were sometimes, 
called the “Strict” Construction Party. The Federalists! be¬ 
lieved that the national government had both expressed and 
implied powers, and the framers of the Constitution had not 
foreseen everything that might be for the best interests of the 
nation. They believed that if a proposed measure was for 
the benefit of the people, Congress had an implied authority 
to enact it into law. Such authority extended to every public 
question, unless the Constitution especially refused that au¬ 
thority to Congress or delegated it to the States. These were 
called the Loose Construction Party. Some of the questions 
not referred to in the Constitution are: Annexation of terri¬ 
tory, building of canals, national roads, and other internal 
improvements. 

The Strict Construction Party has had three different names : 

* The eleventh amendment was added, 1798; the twelfth, 1804; the thirteenth, 1865; 
the fourteenth, 1868; the fifteenth, 1870. 

f Many who were Anti-Federalists before the adoption of the Constitution, after the 
adoption became Federalists; and many Federalists became Anti-Federalists. 


200 


History of the United States. 


Anti-Federalist, 1788 to 1792; Democratic-Republican, 1792 to 
1828; Democratic, 1828 to the present time. 

The Loose Construction Party* has had four different names : 
The Federalist, from 1788 to 1828f ; National Republican, from 
1828 to 1836; Whig, from 1836 to 1856; the Republican, from 
1856 to the present time. 

Choosing the First President. Congress was to meet 
March 4th, 1789, but owing to inconveniences in travel and 
habits of delay, there was no quorum present until nearly a 
month later. April 6, the president of the Senate, in the 
presence of the Senate and the House, opened the envelopes 
containing the electoral votes. When they were counted it 
was found that every one of the sixty-nine electors had voted 
for George Washington. John Adams, having received thirty- 
four votes, the next highest number cast, was elected Vice- 
President. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

Early Colonial Literature (1607 to 1763), As most of 
the colonists were farmers, laborers, and tradesmen, they had 
but little time to devote to studying books. Not many of them 
had a college education. There were a few scholars, prin¬ 
cipally Puritan ministers of New England, who had the leisure 
and the learning sufficient to write books. 

The Seventeenth Century. One of these ministers, John 
Eliot, made a.written language for the Indians, translated the 
Bible into that language, compiled the first book printed in 
America, The Bay Psalm Book, and died teaching the alphabet 
to a little Indian boy. 

Several public men, such as William Bradford and .John 
Winthrop, wrote chronicles and kept diaries, which are still 
used in writing the history of their times. 

The Eighteenth Century. There are two men of the 

* During Monroe’s Administration the Federalist party became almost extinct. The 
party, however, had representatives in Congress and in state governments. 

f This classification of parties is true only in a general way. It must be borne in mi nd 
that, at times when there are great national questions before the people, or when parties 
change party names, there is a great shifting of individuals from one party to another. 


Formation of the Constitution. 201 

early eighteenth century whose writings will live so long as 
we have a literature. Those two are Jonathan Edwards and 
Benjamin Franklin, the former a minister, the latter a printer. 

Jonathan Edwards was such a profound scholar that there 
was “ scarcely any branch of knowledge he was not master of.” 
He was a poor missionary, whose book, The Freedom of the Will, 
secured him the presidency of Princeton College, and because 
of it he was called “the grandest theologian since Saint Paul.” 
In this book Edwards attempts to answer two questions: 
“To what extent can I choose for myself?” and “To what ex¬ 
tent does God control my choice?” Edwards says we are re¬ 
sponsible for all evil, but that we can neither think nor do good 
unless God first gives us the thought and desire for good. 

Benjamin Franklin was the exact opposite of Jonathan 
Edwards. He was a philosopher of the practical and material. 
For mental philosophy he cared not a bit. His charming 
autobiography is second to no other book of that character. 
He wrote sayings so true that men everywhere have adopted 
them as guides of conduct. No other man has attempted 
to compete with him in “forming” proverbs. Some of them 
the American child knows from his cradle-days, and are so 
common in his life that he does not know that they came to 
him from this great sage and scientist. Into a little poster, 
which he printed from time to time in the shape of a calendar 
and called Poor Richard’s Almanac, Franklin incorporated 
many such proverbs as: 

Experience keeps a dear school. 

Little strokes fell large oaks. 

Diligence is the mother of good luck. 

One today is worth two tomorrows. 

For want of a nail the shoe was lost, 

For want of a shoe the horse was lost. 

Three removes are as bad as a fire. 

Revolutionary Literature (1763 to 1789). Under the 
stress of the revolutionary troubles, the impetus which Ed¬ 
wards and Franklin had given to literary art was necessarily 
retarded. The leaders of colonial thought resorted to the 


202 


History of the United States. 


two forms of literature which appealed most strongly to the 
masses—the oration and the essay. 

The Oration. The revolutionary days were the “golden age 
of oratory.” The mention of the names of Henry, Otis, Quincy, 
and Adams, fills the American school-boy’s heart with a glow¬ 
ing and enthusiastic love of country. Fragments, of their 
speeches which have come down to us are recited in the school¬ 
room and from the platform in every American community. 
“Give me liberty, or give me death,” and “If that be treason, 
make the most of it,” will thrill the latest generations of Amer¬ 
ica, as they thrilled the Virginia House of Burgesses. 

The Essay. What these patriots were doing with spoken 
speech, was amplified and enforced by the pens of Paine, Jeffer¬ 
son, Hamilton, Madison, Jay, and a host of others, in pam¬ 
phlets and editorials. 

Paine’s Crisis came out as a periodical, and the first number 
was by an order of Washington read to all the continental 
soldiers. The author continued this effective work in Common 
Sense and The Rights of Man. These three productions of 
Paine were regarded in Europe as the best examples of polit¬ 
ical discussion produced in the eighteenth century. 

The best literary work performed by Thomas Jefferson, who 
wrote Notes on Virginia , and many great State and political 
papers, was The Declaration of Independence. This im¬ 
mortal document is a charter deed of human freedom, wherever 
democracy grapples with absolutism. 

Hamilton, Madison and^ Jay collaborated in producing The 
Federalist, a series of essays written to explain and defend the 
Constitution of the United States, and to secure its adoption 
by the several States. 

Poetry. A number of colonists, some of them college 
presidents, attempted to write poetry, but very few of them 
succeeded. Francis Hopkinson wrote “The Battle of the 
Kegs,” and his son Joseph gave us our national ode, “Hail, 
Columbia, Happy Land.” Timothy Dwight, president of 
Yale, and grandson of Jonathan Edwards, wrote “Columbia, 
Columbia, to Glory Arise.” 


Formation of the Constitution. 


203 


Philip Freneau was probably the only one of these verse- 
writers who was successful in making poetry, and the best 
example of his verse, which is in the main sentimental, is 
“The Wild Honeysuckle.” 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

PREAMBLE. 

We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more per¬ 
fect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I.— Legislative Department. 

Section 1.—All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a 
Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House 
of Representatives. 

Sec. 2 .—Clause 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed 
of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, 
and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have at¬ 
tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of 
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of 
that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term 
of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.* 
The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first 
meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent 
term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The num¬ 
ber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but 
each State shall have at least one representative; and until such enumer¬ 
ation shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to 
choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; 
Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; 
North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three, f 

* Meaning slaves. (Through the influence of Edmund Randolph the word slave does 
not appear in the original articles of the Constitution.) 

f Under the census of 1900 one representative is apportioned to every 193,291 per¬ 
sons. 


204 


History of the United States. 


Clause 4 . When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill 
such vacancies. 

Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker 
and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Sec. 3. — Clause 1. The-Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six years; and each senator shall have one vote. 

Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence 
of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the 
expiration of the second year; of the second class at the expiration of the 
fourth year; and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen 
by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any 
State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until 
the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

Clause 8 . No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained 
to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which 
he shall be chosen. 

Clause J+. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president 
of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a pres¬ 
ident pro tempore , in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall 
exercise the office of President of the United States. 

Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach¬ 
ments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirma¬ 
tion. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice 
shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence 
of two-thirds of the members present. 

Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: but the party con¬ 
victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judg¬ 
ment, and punishment, according to law. 

Sec. 4.— Clause 1 . The times, places and manner of holding elections 
for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the 
Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or 
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, 
and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint a different day. 

Sec. 5.— Clause 1 . Each House shall be the judge of the elections, re- 


Formation of the Constitution. 


205 


turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall 
constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn 
from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of ab¬ 
sent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House 
may provide. 

Clause 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of 
two-thirds, expel a member. 

Clause 8. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in tlieir judg¬ 
ment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House 
on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be en¬ 
tered on the journal. 

Clause 4‘ Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall with¬ 
out the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Sec. 6 .—Clause 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a 
compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out 
of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during 
their attendance.at the session of their respective Houses, and in going 
to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either 
House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority 
of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person hold¬ 
ing any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House 
during his continuance in office. 

Sec. 7 .—Clause 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
amendments, as on other bills. 

Clause.2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to 
the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if 
not he shall return it, with his objections, to that-House in which it shall 
have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, 
and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two-thirds 
of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the 
objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, 
and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But 
in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas 
and nays and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall 
be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall 


206 


History of the United States. 


not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) 
after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like 
manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment 
prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence 
of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on 
a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and 
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Sec. 8.— Clause 1 . The Congress shall have power to lay and col¬ 
lect taxes, duties, imports and excises, to pay the debts and provide for 
the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all 
duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 

Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

Clause 4‘ To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the se¬ 
curities and current coin of the United States; 

Clause 7. To establish postoffices and post-roads; 

Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by se¬ 
curing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to 
their respective writings and discoveries; 

Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on 
the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 

Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water; 

Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money 
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 

Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

Clause 14- To make rules for the government and regulation of the 
land and naval forces; 

Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws 
of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 

Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the 
service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the ap¬ 
pointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia accord¬ 
ing to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 


207 


Formation of the Constitution. 

Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, 
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession 
of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of 
the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over 
all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock¬ 
yards, and other needful buildings;—And 

Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any 
department, or officer thereof. 

Sec. 9. —Clause 1. The migration or importation of such persons* 
as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not 
be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hun¬ 
dred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, 
not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus¬ 
pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

Clause 4- No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless in 
proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

Clause 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. 

Clause 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another f nor shall ves¬ 
sels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties 
in another. 

Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in con¬ 
sequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and 
account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be pub¬ 
lished from time to time. 

Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: 
and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, with¬ 
out the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, 
or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. 

Sec. 10 .—Clause 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, 
or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; 
emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in 
payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law im¬ 
pairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay 
any impost, or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 


* Meaning slaves. 


208 


History of the United States. 


lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce 
of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall 
be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall 
be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any 
duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into 
any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, 
or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II.— Executive Department. 

Section 1 . —Clause 1. The executive power shall be vested in a Pres¬ 
ident of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the 
term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the 
same term, be elected, as follows : 

Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legis¬ 
lature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole num¬ 
ber of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled 
in the Congress: but no senator or representative, or person holding an 
office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an 
elector. 

Clause 3.* 

Clause 4- The Congress may determine the time of choosing the elect¬ 
ors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall 
be the same throughout the United States. 

Clause 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be 
eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to 
that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

Clause 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of 
his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the 
Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, 
or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what 
officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, 
until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

Clause 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his serv¬ 
ices, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished dur¬ 
ing the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not re¬ 
ceive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or 
any of them. 

Clause 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take 

* See Amendment XII, which has superseded this clause. 


Formation of the Constitution. 


209 


the following oath or affirmation :—‘ ‘ I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that 
I will faithfully execute the office of Presicfent of the United States, and 
will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution 
of the United States.” 

Sec. 2 .—Clause 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the 
army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may 
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the ex¬ 
ecutive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their re¬ 
spective offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons 
for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators pres¬ 
ent concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and con¬ 
sent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 
States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 
which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest 
the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the 
President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Sec. 3. —He shall from time to time give to the Congress information 
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extra¬ 
ordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case 
of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall re¬ 
ceive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the 
laws- be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the 
United States. 

Sec. 4.—The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con¬ 
viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department. 

Section 1.—The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, 
at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not 
be diminished during their continuance in office. 

Sec. 2 .—Clause 1* The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in 

*See Amendment XI, for modification of this clause. 


210 


History of the United States. 


law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;— 
to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;— 
to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;—to controversies to 
which the United States shall be a party;—to controversies between two 
or more States;—between a State and citizen of another State;—between 
citizens of different States;—between citizens of the same State claiming 
lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 

Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, 
the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall 
make. 

Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes 
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, 
the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 

Sec. 3.— Clause 1 . Treason against the United States shall consist 
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving 
them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless 
on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession 
in open court. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment 
of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or 
forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. —General Provisions. 

Section 1.— Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State; and 
the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, 
records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Sec. 2.— Clause 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on 
demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be de¬ 
livered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

Clause 3* No person held to service or labor in one State, under the 
laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 

*This clause refers to slaves as well as to apprentices. 


Formation of the Constitution , 211 

delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be 
due. 

Sec. 3. —Clause 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress 
into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction 
of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legis¬ 
latures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property 
belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any 
particular State. 

Sec. 4.—The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a republican form of Government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive 
(when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V.— Power of Amendment. 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it nec¬ 
essary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the appli¬ 
cation of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call 
a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be 
valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when rati¬ 
fied by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by con¬ 
ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of rati¬ 
fication may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment 
which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight 
shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section 
of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be de¬ 
prived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI.— Miscellaneous Provisions. 

Clause 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before 
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall 
be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, 
anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not¬ 
withstanding. 

Clause 8. The. senators and representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial 
officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound 


212 


History of the United States. 


by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious 
test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust 
under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII.— Ratification of the Constitution. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient 
for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying 
the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States 
present the seventeenth day of September in the year of our 
Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of 
the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

George Washington, 
President , and Deputy from Virginia. 

Attest: William Jackson, 

Secretary. 

[In the original draft of the Constitution there here follow the signa¬ 
tures of the delegates by States. There were fifty-five delegates in the 
Convention, of which only thirty-nine signed the document. Rhode 
Island was not represented.] 

AMENDMENTS 

TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, RATIFIED ACCORDING TO 

THE PROVISIONS OF THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE FOREGOING CONSTITU¬ 
TION. 

Article 1.* —Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the free¬ 
dom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to 
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

Art. 2.—A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be in¬ 
fringed. 

Art. 3. —No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

Art. 4.—The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not 
be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup¬ 
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be 
searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Art. 5.—No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 

♦Amendments I to X took effect December 15, 1791. 


Formation of the Constitution. 


213 


except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when 
in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person 
be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; 
nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against him¬ 
self, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process 
of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just 
compensation. 

Art. 6.—In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and dis¬ 
trict wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall 
have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and 
to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

Art. 7.—In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and 
no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the 
United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

Art. 8.—Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im¬ 
posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Art. 9.—The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall 
not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

Art. 10.—The powers not delegated to the United States by the Con¬ 
stitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States re¬ 
spectively, or to the people. 

Art. 11.*—The judicial power of the United States shall not be con¬ 
strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citi¬ 
zens or subjects of any foreign state. 

Art. 12. f—The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall 
not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name 
in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots 
the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists 
of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- 
President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign 
and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the president of the Senate;—the president of the Sen¬ 
ate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open 
all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted;—the person hav¬ 
ing the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if 
such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the 

♦Took effect January 8, 1798. 

j-Took effect September 25, 1804. 


214 


History of the United States. 


highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as Pres¬ 
ident, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 
by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum 
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds 
of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever 
the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of 
March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, .as 
in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall 
be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number 
of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from the 
two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-Pres¬ 
ident ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole 
number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be neces¬ 
sary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

Art. '13.*— Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, ex¬ 
cept as a punishment for crime whereof the person shall have been duly 
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro¬ 
priate legislation. 

Art. 14. f— Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 
States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or en¬ 
force any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens 
of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, lib¬ 
erty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person 
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num¬ 
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the 
right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and 
Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the ex¬ 
ecutive or judicial officers of a # State, or the members of the Legislature 
thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty- 
one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of repre¬ 
sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years,of age in such State. 

* Took effect December 18, 1865. 

fTook effect July 28, 1868. 


Formation of the Constitution. 


215 


Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, 
or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or mili¬ 
tary, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously 
taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, 
or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial 
officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall 
have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid 
or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two- 
thirds of each House, remove such disability. 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author¬ 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques¬ 
tioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any 
slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and 
void. 

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

Art. 15.*— Section 1. The rights of citizens of the United States 
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State 
on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro¬ 
priate legislation. 

*Took effect March 30, 1870. 


Suggestions for Review. 

Why was it necessary to substitute a new constitution for the Articles 
of Confederation? What states claimed land west of the Appalachian 
Mountains? What did they do with their claims? What was the Ordi¬ 
nance of 17877 Give five provisions. Name four weaknesses of the 
Articles of Confederation. Tell about the Annapolis Trade Convention. 
Who were there? What caused Shays’s Rebellion? Who were the leaders 
of the Constitutional Convention? What plans were presented? What 
three great compromises are in the Constitution? What three depart¬ 
ments of government are provided for? How was the Constitution 
ratified? Who was elected first President under its provision? Give 
an account of the formation of political parties. Why was one called the 
Loose Construction Party? The other the Strict Construction Party? 
Trace their development. 

Write an outline of the chapter. What dates should be remembered? 
Name six men who were prominent in forming the Constitution. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 


“ First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” 





CHAPTER XVI. 

ESTABLISHING A GOVERNMENT. 

WASHINGTON’S ADMINISTRATION, 1789-1797. 

Inauguration of Washington, April 30, 1789. Wash¬ 
ington, after learning of his election; left his home at Mt. Ver¬ 
non, in his private carriage, for New York City, then the seat 
of government. Great crowds of people gathered along the 
route to render homage to the man who had led them suc¬ 
cessfully through the perils of a great war. To him they now 
looked with confidence to direct the new government in time 
of peace. At Alexandria he received a royal welcome. A great 
celebration was held in Philadelphia in honor of his arrival 
there. The people of Trenton had erected an arch, supported by 
thirteen pillars and surmounted by a dome twined with flowers 
and evergreens; upon the arch was the inscription, “The De¬ 
fender of the Mothers will be the Protector of the Daughters,” 
and on the dome above, “To Thee Alone.” 

Washington was inaugurated April 30, 1789, on the balcony 
of Federal Hall, New York City. The scene was most im¬ 
pressive. A great multitude of people had assembled to wit¬ 
ness the ceremony. Chancellor Livingston administered the 
oath, which the Constitution requires the President to take 
before entering upon the duties of his office. At the end of the 
ceremony the people joined in shouting, “Long live George 
Washington, President of the United States!” 

The President’s Cabinet.* Congress knew that the Pres¬ 
ident would need help in managing the executive branch of 
the government. It accordingly created several departments 

* The President’s Cabinet now consists of nine members : Secretary of State, Secretary 
of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Postmaster-General, Attorney-General, Secretary of 
the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Secretary of Agriculture, and Secretary of Commerce 
and Labor. 


217 


218 


History of the United States. 


with a secretary at the head of each. These assistants or sec¬ 
retaries collectively have since become known as the President’s 
Cabinet. Washington chose distinguished men to fill the 
positions. Thomas Jefferson was made Secretary of State; 
Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; Henry Knox, 
Secretary of War; and Edmund Randolph, Attorney-Gen¬ 
eral. Each Secretary had charge of his department, and from 
time to time gave advice to the President. 

The First Congress. Sessions of Congress. The first 
Congress had a momentous task to perform. Without a law 
nation another start. Their task was so well and so wisely 
performed that many of the laws contained provisions which 
have remained permanent features of the government. Con¬ 
gress had to supply the machinery to operate the government 
and to raise revenue. The executive department was formed, 
revenue bills passed, a system of courts established, amend¬ 
ments to the Constitution proposed, the national capital lo¬ 
cated, laws enacted for the territories, and salaries fixed for the 
federal officers. 

A Congress lasts two years. The first Congress began 
nominally March 4,* 1789, and lasted until March 4, 1791. 
It held three sessions. Each new Congress begins with the 
odd year, and has two regular sessions, for the Constitution 
requires Congress to meet at least once a year, beginning with 
the first Monday in each December. The first session of each 
Congress may continue until the next December (though it 
never has done so). This is called the long session. The next 
year it may remain in session only to March 4th, as the term 
of office of Congressmen then expires. This is called the short 
session. In addition to these, there may be special sessions 
called by the President. 

The Judiciary Established, 1789.f The Constitution 
provides that the judicial power of the United States shall be 

* Congress was to meet March 4, 1789, but the members were so tardy in coming that 
the House was not organized until April 1, and the Senate until April 6. 

t The number of associate justices has since been increased to eight, making nine in 
all,—eight associate justices, and one supreme justice. In 1891 the circuit court of appeals 
was created, and in 1911 the circuit courts were abolished. 


Establishing a Government. 


219 


vested in one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Con¬ 
gress may from time to time ordain and establish. Congress, 
accordingly, in 1789, created the circuit and district courts of 
the United States, and voted that one chief justice and five 
associate justices should constitute the supreme court. (Con¬ 
stitution, article III, p. 209.) John Jay was appointed chief 
justice by Washington. Thus, the three departments of gov¬ 
ernment—executive, legislative, and judicial—were fully or¬ 
ganized. 

The National Capital. The national capital has been 
located at three different places : New York City, Philadelphia, 
and Washington. It was at New York from 1789 to 1791, when 
the question of a permanent location was considered by Con¬ 
gress. There were many views as to where it should be lo¬ 
cated, but all agreed that some central place should be selected. 
Congress finally voted to locate the capital at Philadelphia for 
ten years, from 1790 to 1800, and after 1800 on the Potomac 
river at some place to be selected by the President. In 1793 
Washington chose the present site, which was named in his 
honor. The construction of a Federal building was at once 
commenced, and in 1800 the seat of government was transferred 
to Washington.* 

The Financial Condition of the Nation, 1789. \yhen 
Washington became President the national treasury was 
empty, the daily cost of running the government was large, 
and a war debt of nearly $80,000,000 was unpaid.f A na¬ 
tion as well as an individual must have some source of in¬ 
come-to meet expenses. How to secure the needed money 
was probably the most urgent question before Congress at 
this time. Alexander Hamilton, the brilliant Secretary of the 
Treasury, set to work to form a plan which would establish the 
new republic upon a firm financial basis and give it credit at 

* The capital city is located in the District of Columbia, a tract of land containing 
sixty-four square miles, lying on the north bank of the Potomac river. It originally was 
ten miles square, an equivalent of 100 square miles. The land was ceded by Maryland 
and Virginia to the general government. That portion ceded by Virginia was returned to 
the state in 1846. 

t This included the state debts, payment of which was assumed by Congress. 


220 


History of the United States. 





home and abroad. His recommendations to Congress were 
enacted, in the main, into law, and have ever since been the 
basis for our national revenue. 

Hamilton’s Financial Policy. 
1. Assumption and Payment of all 
Debts. Upon Hamilton’s advice 
Congress agreed: 

1st. To pay the foreign debt, prin¬ 
cipal and interest amounting to $11,- 
710,000. 

2d. To pay the whole debt due 
American citizens, called the domes¬ 
tic debt, amounting to about $42,- 
414,000. 

3rd. To pay the state debts in¬ 
curred in support of the war, which 
were fixed at $21,500,000.* 

Many congressmen did not be¬ 
lieve that the United States should 
pay the state debts. Hamilton and his followers contended 
that the money had been spent for the benefit of all, in 
the movement for independence; therefore, the general gov¬ 
ernment should assume the debts and pay them. Hamilton, 
however, could not muster enough votes to carry the proposed 
plan, until by an agreement to place the national capital on the 
banks of the Potomac, two of the Virginia members, who had 
formerly opposed assumption, now voted for it. 

II. Measure to Provide a Revenue.! The next great ques¬ 
tion was to raise the money to pay these debts. A tax was 
laid on goods imported from foreign countries. Revenue col¬ 
lectors were stationed at the custom-houses to collect the 
money for the government before the goods would be admitted. 
This was the first tariff act, passed in July, 1789. It was in¬ 
tended not only to provide a revenue, but also to protect the 


Alexander Hamilton. 

“He smote the rock of national 
resources, and abundant streams of 
revenue burst forth. He touched the 
dead corpse of public credit, and it 
sprang upon its feet. v — Webster. 


* The estimated state debt was $25,000,000, but Congress assumed and paid only 
$21,500,000. 

% t James Madison was prominent in creating the revenue laws. 


Establishing a Government . 


221 


manufacturing interests. The tax raised the price at which 
foreign goods had to be sold. The American manufacturer, 
whose goods were not taxed but who had to pay more for labor 
than his foreign competitors, could still conduct business at a 
profit. 

A few days later Congress passed a tonnage act, which im¬ 
posed a tax of six cents per ton on American-built and owned 
vessels, thirty cents on American-built and foreign-owned ves¬ 
sels, and fifty cents on foreign-built and foreign-owned vessels. 

The revenue for the first year under these acts was $1,900,- 
000, but this was only two-thirds of the amount required for 
the actual running expenses of the government. Other legis¬ 
lation was necessary. Accordingly, Congress passed an in¬ 
ternal revenue or excise act, 1791. By this act, distillers were 
required to pay a tax on every gallon of liquor made in the 
United States. 

III. Agencies to Carry on the Finances. —National Bank 
and Mint.—The Bank. A law was passed, 1791, chartering 
the United States Bank, at Philadelphia, for twenty years, 
with a capital of $10,000,000. The government owned one- 
fifth of the bank stock, deposited its money in the bank, and 
used it as an agency to assist in collecting, borrowing, and pay¬ 
ing money. The parent bank was authorized to establish 
branches in the chief cities and towns, and to issue bank notes 
which were receivable for any debt due the government. 

At this time there was no subh thing as a national currency. 
There were no notes or gold or silver coin in circulation, bear¬ 
ing the stamp of the United States. The currency was state 
paper (or bills of credit), and foreign coin, principally English, 
Spanish, and French. The value of these varied in different 
states and different localities. The paper money issued by 
the states had depreciated greatly in value, and was not every¬ 
where receivable. 

The Mint, 1791; Coinage Act, 1792. The new constitution 
took all rights from the states to coin money or emit bills of 
credit (paper money). The sole power of coining money was 
placed in the hands of Congress. In 1791 a bill was passed 


222 


History of the United States. 


to establish a mint at Philadelphia,* and in 1792 the first 
coinage act was passed. It provided for free and unlimited 
coinage of both gold and silver. Any person who had gold 
or silver bullion could send it to the mint and have it coined 
into money, and receive every grain taken there, and, in addi¬ 
tion, the alloy to harden the coin, all without cost to him. 

The gold coins were the eagle, half-eagle, and quarter-eagle; 
the silver coins were the dollar, half-dollar, quarter, dime, and 
half-dime; copper was coined into the cent and half-cent 
pieces. One ounce of gold was equal in value to fifteen ounces 
of silver. The coinage ratio was therefore made 15 to l.f From 
that day to this, we practically have had free and unlimited 
coinage of gold,J but the basis for the coinage of silver has been 
changed several times. 

Political Parties. The persons who were opposed to Ham¬ 
ilton’s policies formed the nucleus for the Democratic-Repub¬ 
lican party. Its greatest leaders were Thomas Jefferson and 
James Madison. They and their followers believed in a close 
construction of the Constitution and in defending the rights 
of the states against the encroachments of the National Gov¬ 
ernment. The defenders of Hamilton’s policy called them¬ 
selves Federalists. They placed a broad construction on the 
Constitution, favoring a strong central government, and in¬ 
dorsing Hamilton’s financial policy. 

Cotton Gin Invented by Eli Whitney, 1793. While the 
statesmen were busy shaping the policies of the country, an 
invention was made which greatly affected the industries of 
the nation. The cotton fiber adheres firmly to the seed, from 
which it must be separated before it can be made into cloth. 
A negro slave could not separate more than a few pounds 
in a day. This great amount of labor made cotton so costly 

* Mints are now located at Philadelphia, New Orleans, Carson City, Denver, and San 
Francisco. 

t The silver in a silver dollar weighed fifteen times as much as the gold in a gold dollar. 

J From 1873 to 1875 there was a charge'bf one-fifth of one per cent. The government 
has also at times charged a fraction of one per cent for immediately exchanging gold coin 
for bullion. This is, however, in the nature of an interest charge for advancing the money 
before the bullion is made into coin. 


Establishing a Government. 


223 


that only the rich could afford to buy it. The demand was lim¬ 
ited and the cultivation not extensive. Eli Whitney, a young 
college graduate, moved from Mas¬ 
sachusetts to Georgia, and seeing 
the great need of a labor-saving ma¬ 
chine, he set to work and invented 
the cotton gin, 1793. With this gin 
one person could separate several 
hundred times as much cotton from 
the seed as without it. The effect 
of this invention was marvelous. It 
revolutionized the industries of the 
South. Cotton became cheap, and 
the demand for it so great that the 
cultivation of it was extended over 
most of the southern states. This 
in turn made slave labor profitable, and helped to fix slavery 

















224 


History of the United States. 


in the South until the Civil War. A great number of cotton 
mills were built in the North, and vast quantities of cotton were 
shipped there as well as to Europe. 

Several years before, Hargraves had invented the spinning- 
jenny; Arkwright the water-frame, producing a number of 
threads instead of only one; and Cartwright, the power-loom. 
These machines worked the fibre into cloth after the seeds were 
removed. Whitney’s great invention now furnished the cotton 
to keep these other machines busy, enriching North and South 
alike, and making cotton a common article of wearing apparel. 

Foreign Affairs. Our relations with foreign countries were 
in a disturbed state. Trouble arose with four nations—Algiers, 
Spain, Great Britain, and France. 

Algiers. Algiers was one of the Barbary States in northern 
Africa. Its people were pirates, and preyed upon the com¬ 
mercial ships in the Mediterranean Sea. If a nation refused to 
pay tribute-money, these pirates would seize its ships and hold 
them until a ransom was paid. Washington realized the great 
injustice of this barbaric practice, but as our nation was young 
and weak, rather than go to war to right the wrong he entered 
into a humiliating treaty with the Dey of Algiers, agreeing to 
pay $1,000,000 for the release of crews already captured, and to 
pay $60,000 annually for the use of the Mediterranean. 

Spain. Spain held both banks of the lower Mississippi, and 
would not let American ships enter or leave the river without 
paying a tax. This was a hardship to farmers and traders west 
of the mountains, who floated their products down the river 
to be reloaded on ocean vessels and shipped to foreign markets. 

Spain also still held the land north of the 31st parallel, which 
was ceded by Great Britain to the United States at the end of the 
war. These disputes, which threatened the peaceful relations 
of the two nations, were settled by the treaty of 1795, in which 
Spain— 

1. Gave up > all claims to territory north of the 31st parallel; 
and, 

2. Granted free navigation of the Mississippi river to the 
United States, and also gave to American traders the right to 


Establishing a Government. 

unload goods at New Orleans to await reshipment for other 
ports. . 

Great Britain. The British continued to hold Detroit, 
Oswego, Niagara, and other Northwestern forts, which they had 
agreed to turn over to the United States at the close of the war. 
Their agents at these forts incited the Indians to make attacks 
on settlers. 

Moreover, France, while at war with England, opened her 
West India trade to our ships. In a short time, many persons 
were engaged in carrying food and supplies to France; but the 
English, claiming that a neutral nation could not enjoy trade 
in time of war which it did not have in time of peace, sent out 
their men-of-war, which captured millions of dollars’ worth of 
these cargoes. 

In addition, Great Britain claimed the right to stop our ships 
on the sea and take from them sailors of British birth. Some¬ 
times American citizens were seized and forced into British 
service. A cry went up over the country to avenge these in¬ 
sults, but Washington sent John Jay to England, with instruc¬ 
tions to make, if possible, a peaceable settlement. 

Jay’s Treaty , 1795. This he succeeded in doing. By the 
terms of the treaty, the British agreed to evacuate all forts on 
the American side, to pay for unlawful seizure of vessels, and 
to allow our merchants to trade with the British West Indies. 
The British did not give up their alleged right to search our 
ships, nor did they stop seizing neutral goods. The treaty, 
though probably the best that could be secured at the time, left 
unsettled matters which ripened into open war a few years later. 

France. While our people were launching the new republic 
under the Constitution, 1789, the people of France, burdened 
by misrule and heavy taxes, and inspired by the success of the 
American War for human rights, started a revolution against 
their monarch. The French republic was formed, 1792, and 
a reign of terror followed. Frightful scenes were enacted. 
Thousands of persons, among them the King and Queen, were 
guillotined. These struggles of the French for liberty dis¬ 
turbed the peace of the United States. This was greatly in- 


226 


History of the United States. 


tensified when war broke out in 1792 between France and Great 
Britain, which continued except for short intervals of peace, 
until the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo (1815). Both nations 
made great efforts to drag the United States into the struggle, 
and succeeded in enlisting the sympathies of the American 
people,—some favoring England, but more supporting France. 
Washington believed that an alliance with either nation against 
the other would be disastrous. He accordingly proclaimed that 
the United States would not take sides in the conflict. This 
was the famous proclamation of neutrality, the beginning of our 
wise policy not to meddle with the politics of Europe. 

Minister Genet. The people favoring France held that na¬ 
tion in grateful remembrance for the help given the Ameri¬ 
cans during the war for independence. The Treaty of Alliance, 
1778, also pledged our aid to France in case of war with Great 
Britain. That war had come; so France sent a new minister, 
Genet, to secure the desired help. He landed at Charleston, 
South Carolina, before presenting his credentials as minister 
to President Washington, and fitted out two privateers to prey 
upon British commerce. This bustling, indiscreet man stirred 
the American sympathy for France to its depths. He was 
toasted and feasted, the neutrality proclamation was denounced, 
and Washington and his followers were accused of being un¬ 
grateful to France and favorable to kings. 

The President, however, remained firm for neutrality. His 
cabinet claimed that the treaty of 1778 referred to defensive 
war, and not to war begun by France. Genet, in reckless 
zeal, appealed to the people to alter the course of the President, 
but they resented this insult to the government. Genet was 
recalled at the request of Washington, and a more discreet 
minister was sent by France in his place. 

Indian Wars in the Northwest, 1790-1794. Colonists 
crossed the mountains in large numbers to open new homes in 
the Northwest Territory. The Indians claimed the lands. 
Encouraged by the British, they applied the midnight torch 
to the new log cabins, and tomahawked the settlers, sparing 


Establishing a Government. 


227 


not even women and children. The white man, in turn, shot 
down the red man wherever he saw him. 

A force of men under Gen. Harmar, sent to protect the whites, 
was defeated. A second expedition of 2,000 men, under Gen. 
St. Clair, was ambushed and almost annihilated. Washington 
then sent “Mad Anthony” Wayne to the seat of trouble. He 
pursued and overtook the Indians (August, 1794), gave them a 
crushing defeat, near the present site of Toledo, Ohio, and 
forced them to make a treaty (1795), giving up all lands east 
of the Wabash river. 

The Whisky Rebellion, 1794. An event occurred in the 
western part of Pennsylvania which tested the strength of the 
government under the new Constitution. The distillers were 
required to pay a tax, ranging in price from seven to eighteen 
cents for each gallon of whisky distilled.* In western Penn¬ 
sylvania they refused to pay the tax. Revenue collectors were 
assaulted and maltreated by mobs and driven from the com¬ 
munity. Washington issued two proclamations warning the 
insurgents to disperse, but they refused to obey, and threatened 
more violence. The President then called out a militia force 
of 2,500 men, which he placed under Governor Henry Lee, 
of Virginia, and sent to the rebellious district. The leaders fled 
at the approach of the army. Their followers became frightened 
and took an oath to support the government. The vigorous 
action of the President showed the power of the government to 
enforce the laws of the land and “to insure domestic tran¬ 
quillity.” 

Washington’s Retirement. Washington had been unan¬ 
imously reelected, 1792, but had declined to be a candidate for 
a third term. For eight years he had safely guided the na¬ 
tion over many breakers, which threatened to destroy it. 
Before retiring from the presidency he issued a farewell ad¬ 
dress to the people, noted for its sound advice and profound 
wisdom. He warned them against party faction and foreign 
alliances. The Union, he said, “is the source of safety, pros¬ 
perity, and liberty, and the nation has a right to the affections 

* The internal revenue tax on whisky in 1911 was SI.10 per gallon. 


228 


History of the United States. 



and devotion of the people.” He who was “ first in war, first 
in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen” retired to 

the peaceful shades of his 
home at Mt. Vernon, where 
he directed the management 
of his large estate, and con¬ 
tinued to take an active in¬ 
terest in the affairs of the 
nation. He died from ex¬ 
posure to cold December 
14, 1799. 

Presidential Election. 

There was no one upon 
whom all the people could 
„ „ _ w unite for the next Presi- 

The Home of George and Martha Wash¬ 
ington at Mount Vernon. dent. Each of the two 

parties put forward its favorite candidate. The Democratic- 
Republicans favored Thomas Jefferson, while most of the 
Federalists inclined to John Adams. Party lines became for 
the first time clearly drawn. The people discussed candidates 
and issues in papers, pamphlets, and “ broadsides,” and in public 
and private debate. Adams was elected President, and Jef¬ 
ferson Vice-President. 


Suggestions for Review. 

Give an account of the inauguration of Washington. What is meant 
by the President’s Cabinet? By a Congress? What are some of the 
duties of Congress? The President is at the head of the executive depart¬ 
ment. What department of the government is Congress? What is the 
other department of government? Why did the government need a 
revenue? Discuss the fixing of the site of the Federal Capital? How did 
Hamilton advise that money should be raised? What was Hamilton’s 
financial policy? What was the origin of the public debt? What is a 
tariff? An excise tax? What is a bank? What is a mint? Tell of Eli 
Whitney and the cotton gin. What was the effect of the cotton gin on 
cotton culture? On slavery? What was “Jay’s Treaty,” and why was 
it not popular? Discuss the French Revolution. The Whisky Insurrec¬ 
tion. Its cause. Tell of Washington’s Farewell Address and of his re¬ 
tirement. 



Establishing a Government. 


229 


Tell something of the following named persons, places, and dates: 
George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Eli Whitney, 
John Jay, Genet; New York City, Philadelphia, District of Columbia, 
Algiers; 1789, 1791, 1793, 1794, 1795, 1800. 


CHAPTER XVII. 

ESTABLISHING A GOVERNMENT. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS, 1797-1801. 

Threatened War with France. Adams was inaugurated 
March 4, 1797. The country was in a peaceful and prosperous 
state, but our foreign relations were 
still in confusion. France was at 
this time governed by five men 
called the Directory. They de¬ 
clared Jay’s Treaty a violation of 
our alliance treaty of 1778, and 
an insult to France. Our minis¬ 
ter, Charles C. Pinckney, was sent 
home. French cruisers pursued and 
captured a large number of our mer¬ 
chant vessels. President Adams, 
anxious to avoid war, called an extra 
session of Congress and sent John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry 
and Pinckney as special envoys to treat with France. 

The X. Y. Z. Affair. After reaching Paris the Commission¬ 
ers were approached by three agents of the Directory and in¬ 
formed that before they could be received officially, three things 
were necessary on the part of the United States: 

1. To apologize for unfavorable expressions made about 
France by Adams. 

2. To make a loan to the French republic. 

3. To pay $240,000 to the Directory (intended for the per¬ 
sonal use of the Directors). 

Pinckney, one of the American Commissioners, replied to 
this attempt to collect a bribe, “We have millions for defense, 
but not one cent for tribute.” In reporting this affair to Pres¬ 
ident Adams the Commissioners used the letters X. Y. Z. in- 



John Adams. 


230 


Establishing a Government. 231 

stead of the names of the three French agents, hence the name, 
-“X. Y. Z. affair.” 

No further effort was made to reconcile France'to our policy 
of neutrality. “Millions for defense” was taken up by the 
American people, Federalists and Democratic-Republicans 
alike. The French treaties were suspended. French dress, 
flags, and customs, introduced by the navy in Washington’s 
administration, were discarded. An army was organized, with 
Washington in command. The Department of the Navy was 
created, and the President directed to appoint a Secretary of 
the Navy, and to have twelve war-ships built. Merchantmen 
were authorized to arm themselves in self-defense, and in a short 
time our ships were scouring the seas around the French West 
Indies in search of French vessels, a number of which they de¬ 
stroyed or captured. 

Realizing that France was facing a war with the United 
States, Talleyrand, of the French Directory, disavowed the 
insults of his agents, and promised to receive on friendly terms 
any envoys whom the President might send. In 1800 a treaty 
was made with Napoleon, who in the mean time had succeeded 
the Directory as ruler of France, and peace was restored. 

The Alien and Sedition Laws. For several years leaders 
of the Democratic-Republican party had been abusing Con¬ 
gress, Washington, Adams, and the whole foreign policy of the 
Federalists. Among the severest critics were foreigners, many 
of whom in America belonged to the Democratic-Republican 
party, and some were supposed to be emissaries of France. 
Several were editors of leading newspapers which abused the 
President. To put an end to the slanderous attacks the Fed¬ 
eralists passed four laws: the Alien Act, Sedition Act, Natu¬ 
ralization Act, and the Alien Enemies Act. 

The Alien Act was passed by Congress, 1798, authorizing 
the President to send all aliens considered dangerous to the 
peace and safety of the United States out of the country and 
to imprison them if they refused to go. The President did not 
enforce this act. 

The Sedition Act imposed a fine and imprisonment on per- 


232 


History of the United States. 


sons who were convicted in court of writing, speaking or pub¬ 
lishing any thing false, scandalous or malicious about Congress, 
the President or any government officer, or of conspiring to 
oppose the operation of government laws or to prevent an 
officer from performing his duty. Several persons were heavily 
fined under this act. 

The Naturalization Act.* Under this act no foreigner 
could become an American citizen until he had resided here 
fourteen years. 

The Alien Enemies Act. The Alien Enemies Act (1798) 
provided that in case of war with another nation all male 
subjects of the hostile nation over fourteen years of age should 
be liable to expulsion from the United States. 

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.! The Alien 
and Sedition laws were said to be violations of the Constitution, 
in that they “abridged the freedom of the press and speech.” 
They raised a storm of opposition among the Democratic- 
Republicans, who charged the Federalists with a desire to build 
up a monarchy, and with an attempt to crush political opponents 
by harsh laws. The most serious opposition came from Vir¬ 
ginia and Kentucky. The legislatures of these states passed 
resolutions which declared: 1. That the Alien and Sedition 
laws were unconstitutional. 2. That the Constitution is 
merely an agreement or compact between states. 3. The 
Kentucky Resolutions went further, and said that nullification 
by the states of unlawful acts is the rightful remedy. 

This doctrine is called “ Nullification/’ and means that a 
state judging any law passed by Congress to be unconstitutional, 
may declare such law null and void and refuse to obey it. 

The First Federal Direct Tax, and Fries’s Rebellion, 
1798. New taxes were laid on lands, houses and slaves, to 
meet the expenses of the proposed French war. The people 

* A foreigner may now become a citizen after he has lived five years in the United States. 
He must file in court a declaration of his intention to become a citizen three years before he 
can get his final papers. Some foreigners live in the United States who never have become 
citizens. The Chinese by law are denied this privilege. (It would be well for the teacher 
to have a set of naturalization papers for class inspection.) 

t Jefferson wrote the Kentucky Resolutions, and Madison, at the request of Jefferson, 
wrote the Virginia Resolutions. 


Establishing a Government. 


233 


in eastern Pennsylvania, not understanding the purpose of 
the law, refused to pay the tax, and by violence drove the 
assessors away. For this the leaders were arrested, tried for 
treason, and sentenced to be hung; but they were afterwards 
pardoned. The taxes were collected, and a second time the 
government showed its ability to enforce the laws and insure 
“domestic tranquillity.” 

Presidential Election, 1800. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron 
Burr were the Democratic-Republican candidates in the elec¬ 
tion of 1800. John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney were the 
Federalist candidates. The campaign was exciting. Many 
unkind and bitter charges were made by each party against 
the other. 

Jefferson and Burr each received 73 electoral votes; Adams, 
65 ; and Pinckney, 64. As no one received a majority, the elec¬ 
tion fell to the House of Representatives (see Constitutional 
Amendments, Art. XII, p. 213), which elected Jefferson Presi¬ 
dent on the thirty-sixth ballot. Burr became Vice-President, 
since the election of Jefferson for President left him with the 
next highest number of votes. 

The method of voting for President 
and Vice-President was not satisfactory, 
so the twelfth amendment to the Con¬ 
stitution was adopted, 1804. (See Con¬ 
stitutional Amendments, p. 213). 

John Marshall and the Federal 
Constitution. Before retiring from 
office Adams appointed John Marshall as 
chief justice of the Supreme Court of the 
United States, and he served in this 
capacity for thirty-five years. No 
wiser appointment has ever been made. 

Within a few years after Marshall as¬ 
sumed office a number of important cases* came before the 

* One of these cases referred to the steam navigation of the rivers of the state of New 
York. The legislature of the state granted a monopoly to Robert Fulton and Robert 
Livingston, thus excluding all others from the right to use steamboats in the state. (See 
p. 260.) Marshall declared the act unconstitutional, as “the right to regulate commerce 



234 


History of the United States. 


court, which were to test the scope of the national Constitu¬ 
tion in its relation to the states. Marshall and his associates, 
in clear, statesmanlike opinions, supported the national au¬ 
thority, as opposed to that of states. These decisions helped 
to give strength and dignity to the nation and have become 
an integral part of our system of government. So important 
was Marshall’s service to the nation that it was said of him, 
“He found the Constitution paper, and made it power; he 
found it a skeleton, and clothed it with flesh and blood.” 

The Federalist Party.* The Federalist party performed 
a great work. It passed wise laws, established public credit, 
guided the nation under most trying circumstances in a course 
which kept it free from foreign alliances, and secured peace and 
prosperity at home. But its leaders, in their zeal to place 
themselves above, criticism, passed the Alien and Sedition laws, 
which wrecked the party. The Democratic-Republican party 
took the reins of government, and for six administrations, or 
twenty-four years, continued to direct the affairs of the na¬ 
tion. 

among the several states” belonged to Congress. No state could exclude vessels of other 
states from their waters. 

Another case was the famous Dartmouth College case (1819). The Supreme Court 
annulled the act of the legislature of New Hampshire, which altered the charter of the 
College, contrary to the will of the trustees. The New Hampshire law was a violation of 
the constitutional provision forbidding states to impair the obligation of contracts. 

* The administration of John Quincy Adams is classed by some persons with those of 
the Democratic-Republicans. While Adams at one time claimed to belong to the Jeffer¬ 
sonian party, his policies while President were more nearly in accord with the Federalists 
and later the National-Republican party. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

ESTABLISHING A GOVERNMENT. 

THOMAS JEFFERSON’S ADMINISTRATION, 1801-1809. 

Jefferson’s Views. Thomas Jefferson was a man of varied 
experience and of great ability. He was the author of the 
Declaration of Independence, had 
served in the Continental Congress, 
had been Governor of Virginia, and 
later became minister to France. 

He served as Secretary of State 
under Washington, and as Vice- 
President during Adams’s adminis¬ 
tration. He was the first President 
to be inaugurated in the new cap¬ 
ital, Washington, then but a small 
village. In dress and manners he 
differed greatly from Washington 
and Adams, both of whom thought 
that the President should surround 
his office with ceremony and dignity. Jefferson believed in 
simplicity, abolished the presidential receptions, and met all 
visitors as plainly and simply as in private life. He believed 
in giving the fullest rights to the common people, and bitterly 
opposed everything which, in his opinion, would tend to fasten 
the economic burdens and political evils of Europe upon Amer¬ 
ica. 

Reform Measures. The new administration began to 
practice rigid economy. . It sold nearly all the ships of the navy, 
reduced the army to twenty-five hundred men, and dismissed 
many civil officers, making in all an annual saving of $1,000,- 
000. The annual revenue from customs, postoffices, and the 
sale of public lands amounted to $10,000,000. The expenses 

23 5 



Thomas Jefferson. 


236 


History of the United States. 


were about $4,000,000. The surplus was used to pay the na¬ 
tional debt, which was greatly reduced while Jefferson was 
President. Internal revenue duties were repealed. The natu¬ 
ralization period was changed from fourteen to five years, as 
it had been in Washington’s administration. Jefferson par¬ 
doned all persons then confined under the Alien and Sedition 
laws, which had now expired.* 

Emigration to the West. After the organization of the 
Northwest Territory and the subsequent defeat of the Indians 
by General Wayne, a steady stream of emigrants crossed the 



A Flat-boat Going Down the Ohio River, Passing Cincinnati as it 
Appeared in 1810. 


Alleghany Mountains and settled in the fertile lands beyond. 
Their furniture, provisions and agricultural implements were all 
carried on.pack-horses. Cattle, hogs and sheep were driven 
ahead. The route over the mountains, which in places fol- 

* The Alien Law, when passed, was limited to two years; and the Sedition Law to 
less than three years. 







Establishing a Government. 


237 


lowed narrow, winding paths, along ravines and gorges, was 
difficult and dangerous. At Pittsburg many of the emigrants 
took flatboats and went down the Ohio river to their desti¬ 
nation. Many towns sprang up along the river and its branches. 
Marietta was founded, 1788. A cluster of log huts, built the 
same year farther down the Ohio, was two years later named 
Cincinnati. 

The census of 1790 showed a population of 4,280 in the 
Northwest Territory. So rapid was the settlement that in 
two years the number had increased to over 45,000. During 
the same period the population in Kentucky had increased from 
73,000 to 221,000. 

The Cumberland National Pike. The great westward 
movement made a demand for roads across the mountains. 
Congress, in 1806, began the work of building such a road, be¬ 
ginning at Cumberland, Maryland, and extending westward. 
The road was made of a heavy layer of stone, covered with 
gravel or soil. By 1820 it was completed as far as Wheeling, 
West Virginia. At a later date the road was extended through 
Indianapolis to Vandalia, Illinois, and surveyed to St. Louis. 
In 1850 it was ceded to the states through which, it passed. 

Commerce on the Mississippi River. At this time there 
were no railroads. The settlers could not profitably carry their 
produce over the mountain roads to eastern markets; so the 
rivers became the highways of trade, and the Mississippi was 
the most important of all, as it was the outlet to the Gulf for 
the whole country west of the mountains. Flour, grain, whisky, 
bacon and other products were placed on flatboats and taken 
down to New Orleans, where the cargoes were sold or reloaded 
on ocean ships bound for other ports. Neighbors frequently 
combined to build a boat and ship a load of produce to market. 
The voyage occupied from three to six months. The return 
trip was sometimes made by boats from New Orleans to Balti¬ 
more, thence over the mountains several hundreds miles home; 
but more frequently, the return journey was made from New 
Orleans northward through the wilderness,—a thousand miles 
or more. Spain owned both sides of the lower Mississippi, 


238 History of the United States. 

but by the Treaty of 1795 she gave to the United States the 
free navigation of the river, and the right to deposit merchandise 
at New Orleans. In 1802 the Spanish authorities at New Or¬ 
leans, in violation of the treaty, withdrew the “right of de¬ 
posit,” and forbade American citizens from carrying on any 
commerce at New Orleans. The closing of the Mississippi 
meant commercial ruin to the region west of the Alleghanies. 
Great was the indignation of the people when they heard of 
Spain’s action. They urged Jefferson to get control of New 
Orleans and all lands on the east bank to the mouth of the river, 
and threatened to seize the territory if he did not do so. 

Louisiana Ceded to France, 1800. Napoleon, the am¬ 
bitious ruler of France, planned to reestablish French power 
in America. He persuaded Spain to cede Loiusiana back to 
France, which was done by secret treaty in 1800.* The trans¬ 
fer of the territory by Spain to France was not then made, and 
Louisiana remained under the Spanish flag until a few days be¬ 
fore it was turned over to the United States. 

Louisiana Purchased of France, 1803. News reached 
Jefferson in April, 1802, that'Spain had ceded Louisiana to 
France, and that Napoleon was preparing to send troops to 
hold it. The transfer from a weak to a strong nation was not 
pleasing to our government. This fact, combined with the 
demand of the western settlers that New Orleans be seized, 
induced Jefferson to negotiate for the purchase of New Orleans 
and West Florida. James Monroe was sent to aid Livingston, 
our minister to France, and Pinckney was sent to assist our 
minister to Spain, which claimed West Florida. The time was 
favorable. 

Napoleon was about to begin war with England. He feared 
that the English with their strong navy would take Louisiana. 
Rather than have it fall into the hands of an enemy, he con¬ 
cluded to sell it to a friend. He also needed money, and when 
approached about the sale of New Orleans, he offered to sell 
the entire province of Louisiana for $15,000,000. The pur¬ 
chase was made, 1803. The United States paid $11,250,000 


* Treaty of San Ildefonso. 



































































» 
























































4 

















* 














































*W'. 


**■3MOW aW 1 






f £ pkl 


I 

a^A^ t 











































Establishing a Government. 


239 


in bonds to France, and $3,750,000 to American citizens as 
claims due them from France for injury done to our commerce. 

The purchase of Louisiana was the greatest event in Jeffer¬ 
son’s administration. It more than doubled our territory, gave 
us control of the Mississippi, and opened the way for acquiring 
the vast regions to the Pacific. Louisiana extended from the 
Mississippi (the only definite boundary) on the east to the 
Rocky Mountains on the west, and from Canada on the north 
to Spanish Mexico on the south, and included New Orleans 
on the east bank of the river. The northern boundary was 
fixed definitely, 1819, from the northwest corner of the Lake 
of the Woods, south to the 49th parallel, thence west to the 
Rocky Mountains. The United States claimed Texas as a 
part of Louisiana, but Spain said it was part of Spanish Mex¬ 
ico. The question was settled, 1819, by the Florida Treaty,* 
in which the United States gave up her claim to Texas and Spain 
gave up her claim to the Oregon Country. The transfer of 
Louisiana was made, December 20, 1803. f On that day the 
French flag was lowered, the stars and stripes raised, and the 
territory became a part of the United States. 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806. Jefferson, wish¬ 
ing to learn more about the newly acquired territory and the 
country beyond the Rocky Mountains, induced Congress to 
vote money for fitting out an exploring party. It was led by 
William Clark and Meriwether Lewis, and set out from St. 
Louis in May, 1804. The explorers ascended the Missouri river 
to its source, then crossed the mountains, descended a stream 
to the Snake river, and went down the Snake and Columbia 
to the Pacific Ocean. They spent the winter of 1805-06 at the 
mouth of the Columbia, and in the spring began the return trip, 
arriving at St. Louis September 26, 1806, after traveling over 
8,000 miles. 

* By the Florida Treaty, the boundary between the United States and Spanish Mexico 
was fixed along the Sabine river, from its mouth to the 32nd parallel; thence due north 
to the Red river; westward along the Red river to the 100th meridian; thence due north to 
the Arkansas river; along the Arkansas river to its source; thence north to the 42nd 
parallel; thence west to the Pacific. 

t Spain transferred Louisiana to France, November 30, 1803. The French held nominal 
possession for twenty days and then transferred it to the United States. 


240 


History of the United States. 



The expedition, besides furnishing information about the 
country, its wealth and people, helped to establish our claim 
to the Oregon Country. 

The Oregon Country. In 1792 Captain Gray, of Boston, 
while trading with the Indians of the Northwest, discovered 
a large river which he named the Columbia, in honor of his 
ship. In early days the nation which made the discovery of a 
river was entitled to the land drained by it. Soon after this, 
John Jacob Astor, of New York, founded the American Fur 
Company, which made preparations to establish a line of trad¬ 
ing-posts along the Missouri and Columbia rivers from St. 
Louis to the Pacific. In 1811 this company built a trading- 
post at the mouth of the Columbia, and named it Astoria. 

Four nations laid claim to this region—Spain, Russia, Eng¬ 
land, and the United States. The discovery of the Columbia 
by Gray, the Lewis and Clark exploration of the territory 
drained by it, and the planting of the first permanent settle¬ 
ment at Astoria, established our rights to the Oregon Country. 

War with the Barbary States. Trouble again broke out 
in 1801 with the Barbary States (Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and 
Morocco). The tribute-money paid to Algiers encouraged the 
other pirate States to demand a like tribute. Tripoli, espe¬ 
cially, became so insolent that Jefferson sent a fleet of war ves¬ 
sels to protect our interests. After some spirited fighting, these 







Establishing a Government. 


241 


states were forced to make a treaty (1805), agreeing not to 
interfere with American commerce in the Mediterranean. But 
these pirates again began depredations when we were at war 
with England (1812-1814). At the close of the war, Commo¬ 
dore Decatur, with a fleet of ten ships, compelled the Dey of 
Algiers to sign a treaty, agreeing to pay for all seizures made 
since the last treaty, and promising not to molest our commerce 
in the future. 

Jefferson’s Re-election. Jefferson was reelected, 1804, by 
a large majority. George Clinton was chosen Vice-President. 
Charles Pinckney was the candidate of the Federalists, but 
received only fourteen electoral votes. 

Death of Hamilton. Aaron Burr, while still Vice-Presi¬ 
dent, became a candidate for Governor of New York. He and 
Hamilton had been political enemies for some time. Hamilton 
again threw his influence against Burr, and succeeded in de¬ 
feating him. Embittered at Hamilton, Burr challenged him to 
a duel, and Hamilton, believing, in accordance with the custom 
of the time, that he could not honorably decline the challenge, 
accepted it. They met on the banks of the Hudson, opposite 
New York City. At" the first shot Hamilton fell, mortally 
wounded, upon the field where two years before his oldest son 
lost his life in a duel defending the honor of his father. The 
tragic death created intense excitement, aroused public opinion 
against the brutal practice of settling disputes with pistbl or 
sword, and led to the enactment of laws making dueling a crime, 
subject to severe punishment. Burr, fearing the wrath of the 
people, fled for safety. 

Burr’s Conspiracy. Later, Burr formed a secret expedition, 
apparently with the hope of establishing an empire in the West, 
with New Orleans as the capital, and himself the ruler. He 
probably hoped to conquer Spanish Mexico and get the states 
west of the mountains to join in forming a new nation. He 
was arrested and tried for treason; but was acquitted for lack 
of legal evidence. Years later he died in New York City, in 
poverty and disgrace. 


242 


History of the United States. 


Suggestions for Review. 

Tell of the troubles with France. What was the X. Y. Z. affair? What 
was the Alien Act? The Sedition Act? The Naturalization Act? What 
were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? What was the doctrine 
of Nullification? Tell of Fries’s Rebellion. What was the great work of 
John Marshall? Who was elected President to succeed Adams? What 
party came into power? 

Discuss Jefferson’s policy. What attracted people to the Northwest 
Territory? Why did the Mississippi become a trade route? What goods 
were carried? What was the extent of the Louisiana Territory?* Why 
did Napoleon sell Louisiana to the United States? What benefit resulted 
to the United States? Tell of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Of what 
benefit was it? What was the National Pike? 

Tell something of the following named persons, places, and dates: 
C. C. Pinckney, John Marshall, Napoleon, Captain Gray, Aaron Burr; 
New Orleans, West Florida, Barbary States; 1798, 1803, 1804-1806. 

Color an outline map showing the extent of the Louisiana Purchase. 
Make an outline of the chapter. 

* The pupil should note that the extent of Louisiana after 1783 was entirely different 
from.that of French Louisiana. 


CHAPTER XIX. 

A STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL FREEDOM. 

EVENTS LEADING TO THE WAR OF 1812. 

American Commerce, and War between France and 
England. Jefferson’s second administration was beset with 
troublous relations with France and England. After a year 
of peace, war again broke out (1803) between these nations. 
In their efforts to punish each other, they paid no attention to 
the rights of neutral countries. Nation after nation was drawn 
into the conflict. England was supreme on the sea, and had 
destroyed the commerce of France and her allies. The United 
States was quick to profit by this condition. Soon, American 
ships swarmed the seas, carrying the products of every clime. 
Trade expanded. Tariff receipts rose in a year from $14,000,000 
to $20,000,000, and our merchants were growing rich. Accord¬ 
ing to Great Britain’s ideas of neutrality, the United States 
could not carry goods directly between France and the French 
colonies. To evade this restriction, our merchants brought the 
cargoes of merchandise to the United States, unloaded, and then 
reshipped the goods to French ports. 

England decided, in 1805, that goods from French colonies 
carried in American ships could be seized by English ships, even 
though they had first been landed in the United States; and, 
without warning, began to take these cargoes as prizes. Her 
conduct became very arrogant after the British victory over 
the French at Trafalgar. She even stationed men-of-war out¬ 
side our ports, to seize our vessels as they came and went. In 
six months, more than one hundred of our ships were taken and 
a thousand seamen impressed. 

British Orders in Council, and Napoleon’s Decrees, 
1806 and 1807. Napoleon was in control of a large part of 
Europe, and tried to prevent British trade on the continent. 

243 


244 


History of the United States. 


In turn, England issued her First Order in Council, 1806, which 
put the coast of Europe under blockade from Brest, France, to 
the mouth of the Elbe river. Napoleon, in reply, issued the 
Berlin Decree, which blockaded the British Islands. Great 
Britain struck another blow by issuing the Second Order in 
Council, January, 1807, which prohibited all trade with France 
and her allies, unless first licensed by England. 

Napoleon retaliated with the Milan Decree, which prohibited 
all trade with England and her possessions, and declared any 
ship subject to capture which took out a British license. 

These conflicting orders and decrees placed the commerce of 
the United States in desperate straits. Our vessels, bound for 
British ports, were liable to be captured by the French. Those 
bound for the ports of France or her allies were liable to be 
captured by the -British. As a result, a large number of our 
vessels were seized and our commerce was practically destroyed. 

Impressment of American Seamen. Another cause for 
complaint was the impressment of American seamen. Great 
Britain claimed the right to stop American vessels on the high 
seas, and take from them any British subjects found among 
the crew. The higher wages paid to American seamen led 
hundreds to desert the British service and join our merchant 
marine. “Once an Englishman, always an Englishman” was 
the stand taken by Great Britain; so she proceeded to seize all 
British sailors found on American ships. Often, native Ameri¬ 
cans were seized and pressed into British service. 

The Chesapeake and Leopard Affair. In June, 1807, the 
American frigate Chesapeake was overtaken off the coast of 
Virginia by the British frigate Leopard. The British com¬ 
mander demanded the surrender of several men serving on the 
Chesapeake. When the demand was not obeyed, the Leopard 
opened fire, killing three men and wounding eighteen. The 
four alleged deserters were then seized and taken on board the 
Leopard. Three proved to be American citizens, and the 
fourth, an actual deserter, was hanged by the British officers. 

The smoldering wrath of the American people against British 
injustice now leaped into flame. Reparation for the past, se- 


Struggle for Commercial Freedom. 245 

curity for the future, and war, if necessary, to obtain them, became 
the cry. 

Jefferson knew the country was not prepared for war, yet he 
could not let such an insult pass without some action. He 
issued a proclamation forbidding British cruisers from entering 
American ports, and called a special session of Congress to con¬ 
sider the situation. 

Jefferson’s Efforts to Keep Out of War. Three ways were 
open to Jefferson to meet the troubles at hand : war, diplomacy, 
or retaliatory legislation. Jefferson was a man of peace, and 
believed better results would be accomplished by peaceful 
measures. He dismissed all thought of war, and sent James 
Monroe and William Pinckney to treat with England. They 
succeeded in negotiating a treaty, but it was so unsatisfactory 
that Jefferson did not submit it to the Senate. The only peace¬ 
ful course left was to pass laws that would be injurious to France 
and England, and force them to some just settlement. In ac¬ 
cordance with this plan, three laws were passed: The Non¬ 
importation Act, 1806; The Embargo Act, 1807; and The 
Non-Intercourse Act, 1809. 

The Non-Importation Act. The Non-Importation Act 
passed by Congress, April 16, 1806, prohibited the importation 
of certain kinds of British goods. It was to go into effect at the 
will of the President. After England failed to give satisfaction 
for the Chesapeake affair, he put the act in force, December, 
1807. 

Embargo Act. Fearing that the Non-Importation Act 
would not accomplish the desired purpose, Congress, on the 
advice of Jefferson, passed the Embargo Act, which prohibited 
all our vessels from sailing to foreign ports, and excluded foreign 
vessels from American ports. The act did more harm to 
America than it did to England and France. Farmers and 
planters suffered greatly because they could not export their 
produce. Foreign commerce was absolutely stopped, home 
trade checked, and men thrown out of employment. There 
was great general depression and great dissatisfaction. The 
people began to evade the law. Some, in New England, even 


246 


History of the United States. 


threatened that their section would secede from the Union. 
Probably the only good derived from the law was the fact that 
it gave a great impulse to home manufactures. 

The Non-Intercourse Act, 1809. Congress, yielding to 
the storm of protests, repealed the Embargo Act, and passed a 
Non-Intercourse Act, 1809. This forbade all American trade 
with Great Britain and France and with their respective col¬ 
onies, but gave our ships liberty to trade with the rest of the 
world. A clause authorized the President to suspend the law, 
with respect to either France or England, if either should repeal 
its obnoxious orders or decrees. 

Presidential Election, 1808. In the Presidential election, 
James Madison, of Virginia, was chosen President, and George 
Clinton, of New York, Vice-President. 

Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, and Rufus King, of 
New York, were the candidates of the Federalist party. Madi¬ 
son received 122 electoral votes out of a total of 176. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON, 1809-1817. 

Madison’s Efforts to Settle Trouble. James Madison be¬ 
came President, March 4, 1809. He had been Secretary of 
State during Jefferson’s two adminis¬ 
trations, and was fully informed re¬ 
garding our troubles with England and 
France. He wished to continue Jef¬ 
ferson’s policy of “ economy at home 
and peace abroad.” Like Jefferson, 
he would not take vigorous measures 
against the outrageous conduct of Eng¬ 
land and France, both of whom de¬ 
served severe punishment. He made 
another effort to get these countries to 
respect our rights at sea, apparently 
with brilliant success. The British 
minister at Washington promised (April, 1809) that the Orders 
in Council would be withdrawn. The people were delighted. 
Hundreds of American vessels set sail for Europe, laden with 



James Madison. 


Struggle for Commercial Freedom. 


247 


grain and other products. Farmers, merchants, ship-owners 
and all looked forward to the prosperous days when dollars 
would come rolling into their pockets. But England declared 
that her minister had acted without authority, and refused to 
carry out his promise. Our trade stopped as suddenly as it 
began, and the joy of the people gave way to gloom and resent¬ 
ment. 

The Macon Bill.* May 1, 1810. Non-importation, the 
Embargo, and Non-Intercourse, all had failed. Congress in 
desperation now repealed the Non-Intercourse Act, and passed 
the Macon Bill. It restored trade with France and England, 
and promised that if either nation would remove its decrees or 
orders, the United States would revive non-intercourse against 
the other nation, providing that nation did not also withdraw 
its decrees or orders within three months. 

Napoleon’s Deception. When Napoleon heard of the 
Macon Bill, he assured the United States that .the Berlin and 
Milan Decrees would be recalled, November 1, 1810. England 
did not recall her orders, so trade was resumed with France. 

Great fleets of merchant vessels were soon on their way to 
French ports. When once at the mercy of France, every Amer¬ 
ican vessel was seized by order of Napoleon, and $10,000,000 
worth of American property stolen. He had not recalled his 
decrees, but only pretended to do so in order that he might be 
able to seize more supplies for his armies. 

Drifting Towards War. Thus the government had been 
drifting aimlessly with the hope that something might happen 
to deliver it from the outrages heaped upon it by England and 
France. Our ports had been patrolled, our commerce de¬ 
stroyed, 1,500 vessels seized, and 6,000 sailors had been im¬ 
pressed into the British service. Legislation and treaty alike 
had failed. Both countries had given abundant cause for war, 
but England had created the bitterest feeling of resentment by 
her insolence in asserting the right to search our vessels and 
impress our seamen. In 1811 our minister to England was 
recalled. Then England became somewhat alarmed, and of- 


* Named after Macon, the Congressman who introduced the bill. 


248 


History of the United States. 


fered to make amends for the Chesapeake affair, which had 
occurred four years before. The time for peaceful settlement, 
however, was over. In the fall elections (1810) a large num¬ 
ber of new men were elected to Congress, demanding “free 
trade and sailors’ rights”; among them were Henry Clay and 
John C. Calhoun, and many others, all eager for war. 

Indian Warfare. —Defeat of the Indians at Tippe¬ 
canoe, 1811. William Henry Harrison, governor of the North¬ 
west Territory, purchased 3,000,000 acres of land from the 
Indian tribes for the government. Tecumseh, chief of the 
Shawnees, opposed the sale, and threatened death to the chiefs 
who made it. He tried to organize a confederacy of all the 
tribes in the Northwest to make a final effort to drive the whites 
back. The lives of the frontier settlers were unsafe. General 
Harrison was sent with an army to look after their interests. 
When within a few miles of the Indian village on the Tippe¬ 
canoe river, Indiana, the army was attacked before break of day, 
November 7, 1811. The Indians were defeated, their town was 
burned, Tecumseh and his survivors fled to Canada, and in 
the war that followed assisted the British. 

Horseshoe Bend. Two years later the Creek Indians in 
Alabama and Georgia, encouraged by the British, took up 
arms against the whites. They captured Fort Mimms, mur¬ 
dering 400 men, women and children (1813). Andrew Jack- 
son was sent against them, and completely defeated them at 
Horseshoe Bend (March 29, 1814). More than 600 of their 
braves were slain. The rest were glad to secure peace. 

The President and “Little Belt,” 1811. The British war 
vessel Guerriere while watching for our merchant vessels off 
the coast of New York, captured a richly laden vessel bound 
for France, took from it a young man from Maine and impressed 
him into British service. Captain Rogers, in command of 
the President, was sent to demand the release of the man. 
He hailed the British ship Little Belt, supposing it to be the 
Guerriere, and received a shot in reply. A battle followed, in 
which the British ship was disabled and thirty-two men killed 
or wounded. 


Struggle for Commercial Freedom. 


249 


War Declared, June 18, 1812. The Federalists opposed 
the war and the Democratic-Republicans favored it. The 
former largely represented New England and the North, where 
the burden of the war would fall heaviest; the latter were 
stronger in the West and the South, representing largely the 
agricultural classes. The Federalists believed that the nation 
was not prepared for war, and that war would ruin commerce 
and business. The Democratic-Republicans, who had a large 
majority in Congress, thought that by invading Canada they 
would force England (which was still at war with France) into 
honorable terms of peace with the United States. Congress 
accordingly declared war against Great Britain, June 18,* 
1812, and voted to raise an army of 25,000 regular troops, 50,- 
000 volunteers, and 100,000 militia. 

THE WAR OF 1812. 

Review of the Causes of the War. The causes of the war 

of 1812 were: 

1. England insisted on the right to search American vessels 
and to impress American seamen. 

2. The English government under her Orders in Council 
captured our merchant vessels when trading with France or her 
allies. 

3. England blockaded our ports for the purpose of searching 
our vessels. 

4. British subjects in the Northwest incited the Indians to 
attack the American settlers. 

Plan of the War. The Americans planned to invade Canada 
and strike a telling blow before England could get a fleet and 
army to America. Three different armies were formed for the 
invasion of Canada by three different routes : The Army of the 
West to go by way of Detroit; the Army of the Center to go 
by way of the Niagara river; and the Army of the North to go 
by way of Lake Champlain. 

The British planned to repel the invasion; to move an army 

* Two days before, June 16th, the English minister announced that the Orders in 
Council would be withdrawn. 


250 


History of the United States. 



Give an account of events in the West; in the Center; in the region of Lake Cham¬ 
plain; around Washington; at New Orleans; and on the sea. 


up Lake Champlain and separate the New England states from 
the rest; and to take the capital and other places on the At¬ 
lantic coast. 

The Army of the West. General William Hull was sent 
from Urbana, Ohio, with an army to the defense of Detroit. 
A British force in command of General Brock was stationed 
at Fort Malden, and marched with some Indians to attack 
Detroit. Hull, when summoned to surrender, hung out the 
white flag and surrendered Detroit and his 2,000 men (Aug. 



























Struggle for Commercial Freedom. 


251 



16, 1812), without firing a shot and without being attacked.* 
Mackinac and Fort Dearborn (now Chicago) also fell into the 
hands of the enemy. 

General William Henry Harrison in Command. Gen¬ 
eral Harrison organized a new army, and marched from Fort 
Washington (now Cincinnati) through Fort Wayne to the 
northwest in the dead of winter, to recover Detroit. General 
Winchester went in advance to Frenchtown, on the Raisin 
river. Here he was defeated and forced to surrender (January, 
1813). All prisoners who could walk were taken to Fort 
Malden, but the sick and wounded were left behind. The 
Indians then burned the village and tomahawked and burned 
the helpless captives. The people were horrified at the atro¬ 
cious crime. “Remember the Raisin!” became the battle-cry 
of the western army. 

Perry’s Victory on Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 1813. The 

United States concluded to build a fleet on Lake Erie, to op- 


Battle on Lake Erie. 

During the battle Perry’s flagship, the Lawrence, was disabled. Dropping into a small 
boat and exposed to the fire of the British, Perry was rowed to the Niagara. After hoisting 
his emblem, he pierced the enemy’s line with his new flag-ship, and won a signal victory 

* General Hull was tried by a court of army officers, found guilty of treason, and sen¬ 
tenced to be hung. He was pardoned by President Madison because of his valiant service 
in the Revolution. 



252 


History of the United States. 


pose the British fleet then in control of that lake. Oliver H. 
Perry was put in command. He set to work at Presque Isle 
(now Erie), and in a few months had a fleet of nine vessels, 
carrying fifty-four guns. The British fleet of six vessels with 
sixty-three guns was in command of Commodore Barclay, who 
had served with Nelson at Trafalgar. The two fleets met, Sep¬ 
tember 10, 1813, and after three hours of terrific fighting the 
British flag was hauled down, and the. fleet surrendered. It 
was a brilliant victory.* Perry, taking the back of an old 
letter, penned a message to General Harrison in words that have 
become as famous as the battle itself: “We have met the 
enemy and they are ours—two ships, two brigs, one schooner, 
and one sloop.” 

Battle on the Thames, Oct. 5, 1813. General Harrison, 
after receiving reinforcements, was met at Sandusky by Perry’s 
fleet and taken across Lake Erie. Proctor fled from Fort 
Malden, pursued by Harrison, who overtook him and his In¬ 
dian allies on the Thames river, where the British were com¬ 
pletely defeated, October 5, 1813, and Tecumseh killed. Proc¬ 
tor escaped, but his troops surrendered. All lost territory was 
regained, and part of Canada taken. 

The Army of the Center. General Van Rensselaer, in 
command of an American force, was defeated at Queenstown 
Heights by a force under General Brock, who came to the 
Niagara region after the capture of Detroit. General Dear¬ 
born succeeded Van Rensselaer. With the assistance of the 
fleet, he took York (now Toronto), the capital of Canada, but 
afterward abandoned it. Fort George was also taken. The 
British attacked Sackett’s Harbor, which was bravely and suc¬ 
cessfully defended by General Brown. 

General Wilkinson superseded Dearborn, July, 1813, and 
planned to capture Montreal. He was to drop down the St. 
Lawrence, while General Hampton, who was encamped at 
Plattsburg on Lake Champlain with 4,000 men, was to march 

* The British centered their fire on Perry’s flagship, the Lawrence, disabling it, and 
killing or wounding all but eight men. British victory seemed certain. Most men would 
have surrendered, but Perry, with flag in arm, jumped into a boat, and was rowed amid a 
storm of shot to the Niagara, and again led in the attack. 


Struggle for Commercial Freedom. 253 

north into Canada and join him at St. Regis. The combined 
forces were to take Montreal. Hampton was jealous of Wilkin¬ 
son, and did not cooperate; so the campaign, which promised 
much, ended in failure. Hampton returned to Plattsburg ; 
and Wilkinson, after being defeated by a British force at 
Chrysler’s Farm, went into winter quarters at French Mills. 

In 1814 General Jacob Brown and Colonel Winfield Scott 
won victories at Chippewa and Lundy’s Lane. Fort Erie also 
fell. The British, however, burned Black Rock and Buffalo 
on the American side. 

The Navy in the War of 1812. At the opening of the war 

our navy was.a subject of English ridicule. We had sixteen 
ships and a number of worthless war-vessels. England was mis¬ 
tress of the sea, with over one thousand vessels afloat. She 
laughed at our “ fir-built things with a piece of striped bunting 
at their mastheads.” She had defeated the allied fleets of 
France and Spain, and looked with contempt at our insignifi¬ 
cant navy. Although England needed most of her vessels 
to look after her interests in Europe, she had about seventy- 
five of them doing blockade work along our coasts when the 
war began. 

During the year 1812 we had at least four well-fought en¬ 
gagements with the British war vessels, in all of which the Amer¬ 
icans were victorious. 

The American frigate Constitution , under Isaac Hull, cap¬ 
tured the British frigate Guerriere; the Wasp captured the 
Frolic; the United States captured the Macedonian; and the 
Constitution destroyed the Java. 

Effect. These were brilliant victories, and filled the Amer¬ 
ican heart with joy and hope. England heard the news with 
amazement and chagrin. Again and again the most power¬ 
ful nations of Europe had built navies, only to have them de¬ 
stroyed by the fleets of England. To have an infant nation 
across the Atlantic commit such destruction was humiliating. 
In six months the Americans had captured more British vessels 
than the French had done in many years. The British had 
sufficient ships to destroy our whole navy at short notice if 


25 4 


History of the United States. 


they had been combined into a fleet. Our officers, however, 
sailed the seas and watched for chances to fight single vessels 
on equal terms, and generally were victorious. 

The Chesapeake and Other Engagements. During the 
years 1813 and 1814 there were a number of naval battles, 
some victories and some defeats for our ambitious little navy. 
The first serious defeat was that of the Chesapeake, June 1, 1813, 
by the British frigate Shannon. The Chesapeake, commanded 
by Captain James Lawrence, lay at anchor in Boston harbor, 
and in response to a challenge went out to meet the Shannon. 
After a short, fierce battle the Chesapeake was defeated and 
Lawrence killed. As his men were carrying him down the hatch¬ 
way, he gave his last heroic order, “Don’t give up the ship,” 
which became a battle-cry for the American sailors. 

After the defeat of Napoleon the British brought a large 
number of vessels (in 1814) to America, and blockaded our coast 
from Maine to Florida, shutting up most of our ships in the 
harbors. 

Privateers.* American privateers roved over the seas in 
search of British merchant vessels, capturing during the war 
more than a thousand of them. The privateers were small, 
swift-sailing vessels, and able to escape from the heavy men-of- 
war. The merchant vessels usually went in fleets, under convoy 
of a man-of-war, but the privateers would frequently slip in 
and carry off a prize. 

The Army of the North. After Hampton’s failure to co¬ 
operate with General Wilkinson, he was superseded by General 
Macomb (1814), whose army lay at Plattsburg. Near by was 
a fleet of fourteen vessels under Commodore Macdonough. Sir 
George Prevost led a British army of 12,000 men up the lake 
for an invasion of New York. With him was Commodore 
George Downie, in command of a large fleet. They made a 
combined attack on the American fleet (September 11, 1814), 
expecting an easy victory; but in less than three hours the 

^ * Privateers are vessels fitted up by individuals to whom a license, called “letters of 
marque and reprisal,” has been given by the President, which authorizes them, in time of 
war, to go on the “high seas” and capture vessels of the enemy. 


Struggle for Commercial Freedom. 


255 


British fleet was defeated, Downie was killed, and General 
Prevost was preparing to beat a hasty retreat to Canada. 

Washington Captured. In the summer of 1814 a large 
British fleet in command of Admiral Cockburn sailed up Chesa¬ 
peake Bay, carrying 4,000 troops under General Ross, to attack 
Washington, the capital. An army, hastily collected at Bladens- 
burg, was defeated. The President and other officials fled in 
panic, while the British army marched into Washington, 
August 24, 1814. They burned the Capitol, the White House, 
Department buildings, committed other acts of vandalism, and 
then sailed to Baltimore. Their fleet bombarded Fort Mc¬ 
Henry while their troops marched to attack the city. General 
Ross was killed, however, and his troops after being repulsed 
were soon taken to join an expedition against the South. 

Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815. The British 
wished, to get possession of New Orleans, so as to be able to 
control the Mississippi river and the Louisiana Territory. For 
this purpose they organized a fleet of fifty of the finest ships in 
the English navy at Jamaica, carrying 12,000 veteran soldiers 
under General Pakenham. The brave and intrepid Andrew 
Jackson was put in command at New Orleans. He collected 
an army of 6,000 riflemen from Kentucky, Tennessee and sur¬ 
rounding country, built embankments, of sand and cotton-bales, 
extending from the river to the swamp, and there awaited the 
approach of the enemy. On January 8th, 1815, Pakenham as¬ 
sailed the works twice, but each time he was driven back with 
frightful loss by the unerring fire of the sharpshooters. Never 
before had such a defeat been administered to a British army. 
Their loss was over 2,000 killed and'wounded. General Paken¬ 
ham was among the dead. Jackson’s loss was eight killed 
and thirteen wounded. 

Without the telegraph, telephone, cable, or railroad, com¬ 
munication in those days was slow. News of the victory did 
not reach Washington until February 4, 1815, nearly two weeks 
after the treaty of peace was concluded. 

The Treaty of Ghent, 1814. Both nations desired peace, 
md had already sent commissioners to Ghent, Belgium, where 


256 


History of the United States. 


a treaty of peace was signed, December 24, 1814. They were 
tired of the conflict and agreed to stop fighting, but no mention 
was made in the treaty of the “ right of search and of impress¬ 
ment of seamen,” or of “free trade and sailors’ rights,” the 
principal causes of the war. It was tacitly understood, how¬ 
ever, that England would in the future respect our rights on 
the sea. All captured territory was restored, and boundaries 
were fixed as they had been before the war. The people of both 
England and America were delighted to hear that the end of 
the struggle had come. 

Hartford Convention, 1814. The Federalists of New Eng¬ 
land were at the outset opposed to the war, and this feeling in¬ 
creased as the war progressed. Their business was depressed 
and their commerce destroyed. Delegates from the New Eng¬ 
land States held a convention at Hartford, Connecticut, in De¬ 
cember, 1814, for the purpose of opposing the war. Its sessions 
were secret, and its proceedings were never fully made public; 
but portions of the report of the convention were recommenda¬ 
tions to the states to adopt measures which would oppose the en¬ 
forcement of certain acts of Congress, relative to the enlistment 
of men. This was again the doctrine of States’ Rights, in 
effect similar to the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions. The 
action of the convention was, to say the least, unpatriotic. 
Many persons believed that the delegates were planning to 
have New England leave the Union, but as peace soon returned, 
nothing more was done. The unwise course of the convention 
helped to complete the downfall of the Federalist party. 

Results of the War. 

1. The national debt was increased $98,000,000. 

2. Commerce was destroyed and business greatly injured. 

3. Our navy gained the respect of the nations of Europe, 
and won for American ships the right to sail the seas without 
being disturbed. 

4. The war led Americans, who were deprived of the manu¬ 
factured goods of Europe, to build mills and factories for them¬ 
selves. 

State Banks and Financial Distress. At the close of the 


Struggle for Commercial Freedom . 


257 


war our finances were in a bad condition. All banks excepting 
those in New England had suspended specie payment (no longer 
gave gold or silver in exchange for paper money). 

The charter of the United States Bank had expired, 1811, 
and Congress would not renew it. A large number of state 
banks sprang up all over the country, hoping to get the business 
formerly done by the United States Bank. The paper money 
issued by these banks had very much depreciated, and all 
business suffered greatly. The small silver coins were with¬ 
drawn from circulation with the rest of the specie. This caused 
inconvenience in making change, and led merchants and business 
firms to issue tickets to take the place of the small coins. 

Second United States Bank, 1816. To remedy these evils 
Congress chartered the second United States Bank, 1816, at 
# Philadelphia, for twenty years, with a capital of $35,000,000. 
The government took one-fifth of the stock. The bank could 
establish branch banks in various cities, and issue paper money 
which the government would receive at face value for taxes, 
lands, and all debts. 

Presidential Election, 1816. The questions upon which the 
two parties had differed were settled or in a large measure dis- 
posed of by the war, so there were no well-defined issues in the 
campaign. 

The Hartford Convention and the opposition to the war by 
some of the Federalists brought their party into discredit. When 
the election came, the Democratic-Republicans elected their 
candidate, James Monroe, by a very large majority. Daniel 
D. Tompkins was chosen Vice-President. Rufus King, the 
Federalist candidate for President, received only thirty-four 
electoral votes out of 217. 


Suggestions for Review. 

How did the British Orders in Council and Napoleon’s Decrees affect 
the United States? What three measures did Congress pass to protect 
our interests? What is meant by the British right of search and impress¬ 
ment of seamen? Tell of the Chesapeake Affair. What efforts were made 
by President Madison to prevent war? What did “Free Trade and Sailors’ 


258 


History of the United States . 


Rights” mean? Tell of the growth of the American navy. Why did the 
Federalist party oppose the war with England? Give the causes of the 
War of 1812. Name three prominent young Americans of this period. 
What was the effect of the loss of Detroit? Give the chief events of the 
war by campaigns. Tell of the battle of Lake Erie. Of the wanton attack 
upon Washington. What was the Hartford Convention? Tell of the 
Battle of New Orleans. What were the terms of the treaty of peace? 
Date? Did the war benefit America? What questions were settled by 
the war? 


CHAPTER XX. 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST AND MEANS 
OF TRANSPORTATION. 

Migration West. Great as was the migration to the West 
before the war of 1812, it became immensely greater after that 
conflict. The highways of travel were literally filled with 
emigrant trains, moving westward. Over 16,000 emigrants 
were reported as having passed a single toll-gate in Pennsyl¬ 
vania, between March and December, 1817. They settled on 
the fertile western lands, cleared the wilderness, and set to 
work building homes, towns, and cities, with marvelous rapidity. 

Emigrants moved west, mainly, by four different routes: 
(1) Across New York State by way of the Mohawk valley. (2) 
From Philadelphia over the mountains to Pittsburg. (3) From 
Baltimore along the Potomac river, then over the mountains. 
(4) Across the mountains of Virginia and into Kentucky and 
Tennessee. Three cities, New York, Philadelphia and Balti¬ 
more, became rivals in reaching out for the commerce of the 
rapidly growing West. (See map, p. 263.)- 

Steamboats. One influence, that tended greatly to in¬ 
crease emigration, was a new means of transportation. Efforts 
had been made for several years to perfect a steamboat, and 
with some degree of success. James Rumsey, in the presence 
of General Washington, launched a steamboat on the Potomac, 
1786, which went at the rate of four miles an hour against the 
current. John Fitch built several, the first in 1787, which was 
propelled by oars fastened on each side and worked by steam. 
It made a trial trip at Philadelphia, before the members of the 
Constitutional Convention. From June to September, 1790, 
one of his boats made regular trips between Philadelphia and 
Burlington, New Jersey. Patrick Millar exhibited a steamboat 
in Scotland, 1787; Robert Fulton, one at Paris, France, 1804; 
and John Stevens, one on the Hudson, 1804. 

259 


260 


History of the United States. 


Robert Fulton. But the first practical success was 
achieved in 1807, when Robert Fulton built the Clermont, which 
made a trip from New York to Albany, 
a distance of 150 miles, at the rate of 
five miles an hour. The first steam ves¬ 
sel on the Ohio was launched at Pitts¬ 
burg, 1816. After the invention of the 
steamboat, it was no longer necessary 
to float merchandise down the river and 
make the return trip hundreds of miles 
on foot. The use of the steamboat was 
rapidly extended. 

The Phoenix, built by John and Robert 
Stevens, made a successful trip on the Hudson, a few days after 
that of the Clermont. As the legislature of New York had 

given to the inventor of the 
first successful steamboat 
‘the exclusive right to navi¬ 
gate the rivers of the state, 
the Stevens brothers took 
their boat to the Delaware 
river by the sea, where it w r as 
used for six years. This 
was the first steamboat to 
sail upon the ocean. In 
1819 the steamship Savannah, burning wood for fuel and fitted 
also with sails, crossed the Atlantic. 

The steamboat thus became a great factor in the develop¬ 
ment of the country. Freight rates were reduced. Prices on 
goods fell in proportion. Speed and convenience in travel 
added greatly to the settlement of the Ohio and Mississippi 
valleys. The merchants of the seaboard found a way to send 
their manufactured goods to the West and receive pay in the 
products of the fertile soil. 

The Erie Canal, 1817-1825. The people of New York, de¬ 
termined to make a quicker and cheaper route for travel and 
the transportation of merchandise, began (1817) to construct 



The Clermont. 








Development of the West — Transportation. 261 

a canal from Albany to Buffalo, on Lake Erie, a distance of 
363 miles. It was a great undertaking. The canal was forty 
feet wide and four feet deep, but was afterwards changed to 
a depth of seven feet. The work was done with pick and shovel, 
through swamps and forests, over hills and through masses of 
rock. Locks with solid walls of masonry were built, in which 
to raise and lower the boats. Tight wooden bridges, called 



aqueducts, were built to carry the water over rivers and ravines. 
When the canal was completed, in the fall of 1825, cannon 
placed five miles apart flashed the message across the state. 
When the water was turned in, a fleet of canal-boats, carrying 
Governor Clinton and other distinguished citizens, left Buf- 











262 


History of the United States. 


falo (Oct. 26), and arrived at New York November 4th, 1825. 
A keg of water brought from Lake Erie was poured into the 
Atlantic by the Governor, to commemorate the complete con¬ 
nection of the Lakes with the Atlantic by canal. 

Effect of the Construction of the Canal. 1 . The 
completion of the canal greatly reduced the cost of transpor¬ 
tation.* 2. It increased western emigration and stimulated 
trade wonderfully between the East and West. 3. It made 
western food products cheaper in the East and eastern manu¬ 
factured goods cheaper in the West, enriching both sections 
alike. Prosperous cities sprang up along its banks, and New 
York City soon became the chief commercial center in the 
country. 

Enlargement. The Erie canal has been enlarged several 
times. In 1903 the people in New York state voted $101,000,- 
000 to change it to a barge canal, with a depth of twelve feet, 
over a new route one-third of the way. This greatly enhanced 
the value of the canal. 

Other Canals. The Chesapeake and Ohio Company was 
formed to build a canal from Georgetown to Cumberland, Md.; 
then by tunnel through the mountains to the Youghiogheny 
river; then by canal to Pittsburg. When the canal was not 
more than half finished, at a cost of $11,000,000, work was 
stopped by the appearance of a dangerous rival, the Baltimore 
and Ohio Railway. 

Many other canals, principally in New England, Ohio and 
the Middle States, were built. The Miami canal, extending 
from Cincinnati to Dayton, and the Wabash and Erie, con¬ 
necting Lake Erie with the Ohio river, and the Welland canal, 
built by the Canadian government in 1833, connecting Lake 
Erie with Lake Ontario, are some of the important ones. 

There were serious obstacles to the use of canals. Floods 
and slack water hindered traffic. Winter freezes stopped the 
operation of the boats for several months. Canals could only 
follow river courses, or cross low and narrow divides. Rail- 

* The freight rates on a ton of goods by wagon-road was about $32 for a hundred miles; 
by canal for the same distance the cost was $1 per ton. 


Development of the West — Transportation. 263 

roads could be built with less expense and in any direction, over 
hill and valley, mountain and plain, making a continuous trip. 

Decay of Canals. The introduction of steam as a motive 
power was the death-knell of canal-boats. Time alone was 
needed to extend the railroads. Canals then fell into disuse 
and decay. Of the 9,000 miles of canals built, only 1,000 miles 
were in use in 1912. 

The old tow-boat, drawn by horses, is almost a thing of the 
past. The modern canals like the Panama, Welland, and the 
Erie Barge, are used to connect one large body of water with 



Early Routes for Transportation Over the Mountains. 

1. The Erie Canal, extending from Troy to Buffalo. 

2. The middle route, extending from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, included a horse rail¬ 
way from Philadelphia to Columbia, a canal from Columbia to Hollidaysburg, a portage 
railway from Hollidaysburg to Johnstown, and a canal from Johnstown to Pittsburg. 

3. The lower route included a canal from Washington to Cumberland, and a railroad, 
from Baltimore to Wheeling. 












264 


History of the United States. 


another, and are built large enough to carry steamships. An¬ 
other form of canal is that which is built around the shallows 
or the rapids of a river, allowing boats to pass through the canal 
to deep water in the river above, like those along the St. Law¬ 
rence and Mississippi rivers. 

Highway from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. The open¬ 
ing of the Erie canal caused great excitement in Philadelphia. 
Freight could be taken from Philadelphia by boat to New York, 
then over the Erie canal and down to Pittsburg, for one-half 
of what it cost to take it over the mountains. With the na¬ 
tional road on one side and the great canal on the other the 
trade of Philadelphia would be ruined, unless something could 
be done to cheapen the rate across the mountains. The legis¬ 
lature of Pennsylvania voted money to build such a highway. 
Ground was broken at Harrisburg, July, 1826. The route went 
by horse rail* from Philadelphia to Columbia, then by canal 
along the Susquehanna and Juniata rivers to Hollidaysburg, 
then over the steep sides of the mountain by a “portage” rail¬ 
road f to Johnstown, then down to Pittsburg by canal. The cost 
of this enterprise was $10,000,000. 

Early Railroads. The early railroads were used to supple¬ 
ment canals. Wooden rails were used. These were soon fol¬ 
lowed by bands or strips of iron on top of the rails to make them 
more durable. The cars were drawn by horses. One of the 
first of these was at Quincy, Massachusetts, three miles long, 
built in 1826. It was used to carry granite from the quarries 
to tide-water. In 1827 several plans were formed to build 
roads of great length. 

The legislature of Massachusetts appointed a commission 
to select a route for a railroad to connect Boston with the 
Erie canal at Albany. The same year, at a public meeting 
at Baltimore, plans were made to build a railroad from Balti¬ 
more over the mountains to the Ohio; and on the fourth of 
July, 1828, work was begun on what is now the Baltimore & 

* The rails were of wood, covered with iron, strips, and the cars pulled by horses. 

t The portage railroads were a series of inclines. The trains were pulled up these by 
stationary engines and let down on the other side of the slope. 


265 


Development of the West — Transportation. 

Ohio Railroad.* About the same time, New York and South 
Carolina became active in railroad-building. 

Steam Engines and Railroad Construction. George 
Stephenson had built and used a steam locomotive in England 
as early as 1814. After making various improvements, he 
produced (1829) an engine, named “The Rocket,” which may 
be called the parent of the swift and powerful engines of today. 

The first locomotive in the United States made a trial trip 
on the rails of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, 
1829, with little success, as the track was too light for a heavy 
engine. The next year a locomotive, “Tom Thumb,” in- 



Peter Cooper’s Locomotive, “Tom Thumb,” Racing with a Horse Car. 


vented by Peter Cooper, made a trial trip on the Baltimore & 
Ohio tracks, from Baltimore to Ellicot Mills, a distance of 
thirteen miles, in an hour and thirteen minutes. The same 
day, the engine ran a race with a horse drawing a coach on a 
parallel track, and the race ended in favor of the horse. But, 
despite this defeat, steam had as much power then as it has 
today. A few experiments and improvements were all that 
was needed to send heavy trains over the tracks with great 
speed. In January, 1831, the South Carolina Railroad Com¬ 
pany began the use of a steam engine on its tracks at Charles¬ 
ton. The same year, an engine on the Baltimore & Ohio tracks 
obtained a speed of fifteen miles an hour. The use of steam 

* Charles Carroll of Carrollton, 93 years of age, the only survivor at that time of those 
who signed the Declaration of Independence, broke the first ground, with these words: 
“I consider this the most important act of my life, second only to the signing of the Dec¬ 
laration of Independence—if second to that.” 













266 


History of the United States. 



One of the First Railway Trains. 

This train made the first excursion trip from Albany to Schenectady, August 9, 1831, 
on the Hudson-Mohawk Railroad. 


as a motive power grew rapidly, and revolutionized all lines 
of travel and transportation. Railroad construction was car¬ 
ried on with great energy. The whole country seemed awake 
to the possibilities of the steam railway. Numerous compa¬ 
nies were formed and a large number of roads were commenced. 
From a few miles of track in 1830, the mileage increased to 
2,775 miles in 1840; to 9,000 miles in 1850; and to 30,635 
miles in 1860. By this time most of the larger cities were 
linked together by ties of iron. Unfortunately, few of the 
roads ran north and south, and friendly intercourse was not 
secured where it was much needed. 

Formation of New States, and Territorial Expansion. 
Vermont was the first new state to be admitted to the Union, 
under the Constitution. It was formed out of the territory 
claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, and became 
a free state; 1791. During the Revolutionary War, the people 
there formed a new state (1777), and applied to the Continental 
Congress for admission. It was not granted; so Vermont 
w T as practically a self-governing republic until 1791. Kentucky 
was admitted, with slavery, in 1792. Tennessee was admitted, 
with slavery, in 1796; Ohio, free, in 1802; Louisiana, slave, 
in 1812; Indiana, free, 1816; Mississippi, slave, 1817; Illinois, 
free, 1818; Alabama, slave, 1819; Maine, free, 1820; .Mis¬ 
souri, slave, 1821. Maine had been a part of Massachusetts, 
but with the consent of Massachusetts it withdrew, and ap¬ 
plied for admission to the Union. 

By 1820, two great Territories (Louisiana and Florida) were 
annexed to the original territory, and claims were well estab¬ 
lished to the Oregon Country. The Floridas opened the way 















267 


Development of the West — Transportation. 

to the Gulf. The Louisiana Territory more than doubled our 
original domain, and the Oregon Country opened the way to 
the Pacific Ocean. 

Growth of Population, 1790-1860. The population of 
our country in 1798 was about 4,000,000, and since then the 
growth has been rapid and constant. For each decade be¬ 
tween 1790 and 1860, the average increase was nearly 4,000,- 
000, or an amount equal to the total population when Wash¬ 
ington became President. In other words the population had 
increased eight fold in seventy years, while at the same time 
the population of England had not doubled, and that of France 
had increased only one-half. 

During this period between five and six million immigrants 
arrived in the United States. This number, however, was only 
a small part of the total increase, the rest being due to the 
natural growth; for in those days, when every household had 
need for help, families were large. 

The population in 1860 was in round numbers 31,400,000, 
distributed over thirty-three states. Of this number about 
15,000,000 lived in the thirteen original states, and the rest 
were found in the states which were admitted after the adop¬ 
tion of the Constitution. It is apparent, then, that at the be¬ 
ginning of the Civil War more people lived west of the Allegheny 
Mountains than lived east of them. 

The growth of cities had already become noticeable. By 
1860 there were 141 cities, each with more than 8,000 people, 
but only two of this number, New York and Philadelphia, had 
more than half a million. 


POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES EACH DECADE. 


Year 

Population 

Per Cent of Increase 

Year 

Population 

Per Cent of Increase 

1790 

3 , 929,241 


1830 

12 , 866,020 

33.55 

1800 

5 , 308,483 

35.10 

1840 

17 , 069,453 

32.67 

1810 

7 , 239,881 

36.38 

1850 

23 , 191,876 

35.87 

1820 

9 , 633,822 

33.07 

1860 

31 , 443,321 

35.58 














268 


History of the United States. 


Suggestions foe Review. 

Tell about the migration westward after the war of 1812-1814. Name 
the four routes across the mountains. Tell of Rumsey’s steamboat. 
John Fitch’s steamboat. What was done by Robert Fulton? What 
effect did steamboat traffic have on the price of goods? Give a brief 
history of the Erie Canal. What are locks? Of what benefit was the 
Erie Canal to the West? To the East? Why was the Cumberland Canal 
not completed any farther than to Cumberland? Describe the route of 
transportation from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. What caused canals to 
go out of use. *Why? What canals are now in use? Give an account of 
the first railroads, horse railways and steam railways. What effect did rail¬ 
roads have upon commerce? What new states were admitted? 


CHAPTER XXL 


THE MONROE DOCTRINE, MISSOURI COMPRO¬ 
MISE, AND PROTECTIVE TARIFF. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MONROE, 1817-1825. 

Era of Good Feeling. During Monroe’s administrations 
party spirit and party strife died out for a time. His second 
administration was known as the 
“Era of Good Feeling.” There was 
no longer a party favoring England 
and another favoring France. The 
war of 1812 won commercial inde¬ 
pendence for us, and settled the 
foreign questions which had divided 
the people. Parties had to be re¬ 
built on new issues. The people 
forgot party strife, and paid atten¬ 
tion to business and the welfare of 
the nation rather than to politics. 

The Democratic-Republicans, in 
theory, favored peace and a strict 
construction of the Constitution, but in practice they made war, 
and, by the purchase of Louisiana, had placed a broad construc¬ 
tion upon the Constitution. From 1816 to 1824 the two parties 
had merged practically into one. Only one vote was cast 
against Monroe for President in 1820, and that was cast by 
William Plumer, an elector from New Hampshire. 

Florida and the Seminole War, 1818. Florida, which 
then belonged to Spain, was a source of much trouble to the 
people of the South. Bands of Seminole Indians, joined by 
runaway slaves, made raids into Georgia and Alabama, murder¬ 
ing families and carrying off property. When pursued, they 
would cross the Florida border, believing that the United 

269 



James Monroe. 


270 


History of the United States. 


States troops would not dare to follow them into Spanish terri¬ 
tory. Complaints to the Spanish government brought no 
redress; so Andrew Jackson was sent with troops to put an 
end to these raids; if necessary, to follow the Indians into 
Florida, but not to seize any Spanish property. He defeated 
the Indians with energy and dispatch, but, contrary to instruc¬ 
tions, he took two Spanish forts, St. Marks and Pensacola, and 
hung two English traders, Arbuthnot and Ambrister, as spies. 
Jackson’s rash act was applauded by the people, but in justice 
to Spain the President restored the forts. 

Purchase of Florida, 1819. In 1803 Jefferson tried to 
purchase Florida along with New Orleans, but secured Louisiana 
instead. There was no fixed boundary between Spanish Mexico 
and Louisiana. Both Mexico and the United States claimed 
Texas, which caused trouble in that quarter. This, combined 
with the constant trouble along the Florida border, induced 
Spain to agree to a settlement which resulted in the Florida 
Treaty. 

The Florida Treaty, 1819-1821.* By the terms of this 
treaty several important matters were settled: 

1. Spain ceded Florida to the United States, for which the 
United States paid $5,000,000 to American merchants for 
injury done their commerce by Spain. 

2. The boundary was definitely fixed between Spanish 
Mexico and the United States.* (See map, p. 238.) 

3. By the terms of the treaty the United States gave up all 
claims to Texas, and Spain gave up all claims on the Oregon 
Country. 

The Monroe Doctrine, 1823.— Growth of Democracy. 
After the United States became a republic the spirit of freedom 
grew rapidly. The French Revolution wiped monarchy out of 
France. A wave of democracy swept over Europe. Beginning 

* The treaty was not finally ratified by Spain until 1821. She purposely delayed the 
approval, to keep the United States from recognizing the independence of the South- 
American republics. 

t The boundary was fixed from the Gulf of Mexico along the Sabine river to the 32d deg., 
then due north to the Red river, westward along the Red to the 100th meridian; thence 
due north to the Arkansas river, westward along the Arkansas to its source, then north 
to the 42nd parallel; then west on the 42nd parallel to the Pacific. 


271 


The Monroe Doctrine—Protective Tariff. 

with 1810, one after another of the Spanish colonies of South 
America and Mexico rebelled and formed, republics. 

Holy Alliance.* The monarchs of Europe became alarmed 
at these revolutions, and formed what was called the Holy 
Alliance (1815), for the purpose of protecting the territorial 
and political rights of monarchs. 

As long as the work of the Holy Alliance was confined to 
Europe, we offered no complaint: but when, in 1823, it planned 
to help Spain regain her lost colonies in America, the United 
States became deeply interested. 

About the same time that Spain began these aggressions, 
Russia, which then owned Alaska, was threatening our claims 
on the Oregon Country. As early as 1812 she had made a 
settlement in California, f and in 1821 the Czar announced that 
Russia claimed all the land along the Pacific coast as far south 
as the 51st parallel. 

The Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain had built up quite 
a trade with the South-American republics, which she did not 
wish to lose. Rumors that Spain would try to regain these 
republics, France to take Mexico, and that Russia would seize 
California, disturbed both Great Britain and the United States. 
The British prime minister wanted the United States to jjDin 
Great Britain in making a declaration to the allied powers, 
warning them to keep their hands off the American States. 
But John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, insisted that we 
should not follow England’s lead, but assume full and sole 
responsibility for the protection of the republics in America. 
Upon this suggestion, President Monroe in his message to Con¬ 
gress, 1823, announced the famous “Monroe Doctrine,” which 
said: 

1. “That the American continents, by the free and independ¬ 
ent condition which they have assumed and maintained, are 
henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future coloniza¬ 
tion by any European powers.” 

* The Holy Alliance at first included only Russia, Prussia, and Austria, but later in¬ 
cluded nearly all the countries of Europe except Great Britain. 

t The settlement was made at Fort Ross, on Boveda Bay, near the Russian river, north 
of San Francisco. Another was made on the Farallones Islands. 


272 


History of the United States. 


2. “That we should consider any attempt on their part to 
extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere, as 
dangerous to our peace and safety.’’ 

3. That we would not interfere with any European colonies 
already established nor meddle with the politics of Europe. 

The result was that no attempt was made to recover the 
Spanish colonies, and in 1824 Russia made a treaty with the 
United States by which she gave up all claims to territory on 
the Pacific coast south of 54° 40', and the United States agreed 
not to make any settlement north of that line. 

Slavery, North and South. At the outbreak of the Revolu¬ 
tion, slavery existed in all of the thirteen colonies. In the 
North, slaves were relatively few, but in the South they formed 
a large portion of the population. The first census (1790) re¬ 
corded 40,000 north of the Mason and Dixon line and 654,000 
south of it. In Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina there 
was one slave for every two white persons, and in South Caro¬ 
lina the slaves were almost equal in number to the whites. In 
colonial days both North and South clearly saw the evils of 
slavery. Most of the southern colonies keenly felt that the 
planter’s money gain was largely offset by the social and political 
evijs which went with the system, so they attempted to restrict 
the importation of slaves by placing a tax on those brought into 
the colonies. In the North, where slave labor was not so 
profitable, the objections to slavery were social, political, and 
economic. Then, too, the struggle for independence developed 
a keener appreciation of human rights. The political maxim 
“That all men are created equal” had taken fast hold of the 
people. So the North undertook not only to restrict the im¬ 
portation of slaves, but to set to work to free those already 
there. The new territory of Vermont, when it formed a con¬ 
stitution, 1777, prohibited slavery. Massachusetts in 1780 
placed a clause in her constitution declaring that “all men are 
born free and equal.” This, in 1783, by judicial interpretation 
was declared to mean that slavery could not exist in the state. 
By 1800, all of the New England States, New York and Penn¬ 
sylvania had made provisions for abolishing slavery. 


The Monroe Doctrine—Protective Tariff. 273 

The Effect of the Cotton Gin, Climate and Soil. The 
invention of the cotton gin gave a great stimulus to the culti¬ 
vation of cotton, and made a great demand for slave labor. 

The industries of the North were of such character that 
slave labor could not be used to advantage, and the climate 
was too severe for those accustomed to the heat of Africa. In 
the South the climate and soil were well suited for the growth 
of rice, tobacco, and cotton, all of which required a great amount 
of cheap labor. Slaves were useful for this purpose. They 
would wade knee-deep in water and mud, in malaria-breeding 
districts, bending under a broiling sun, and care fpr growing 
crops of rice. They could be herded in gangs under hired over¬ 
seers, to cultivate, at little cost and with great profit to the 
planters, large fields of cotton and tobacco. In the course of 
time slavery became deeply rooted in the South, and was con¬ 
sidered necessary to the prosperity of the people. The interests 
of the two sections were gradually growing apart, but slavery 
did not become a great political question until Missouri applied 
for admission to the Union as a state. 

The Missouri Compromise, 1820. —Missouri and Maine 
Apply for Admission to the Union. In 1819, when the ad¬ 
mission of Missouri was under discussion, there were eleven 
free and eleven slave states, which gave the same number of 
Senators in Congress to both sections, 
but the North had a larger population 
and consequently a larger number of 
Representatives. If more free states 
should be admitted, the North might 
pass laws against slavery. The South 
became very active for the extension of 
slavery, partly as a means of preserv¬ 
ing it where it already existed. A 
long, bitter struggle on the slavery 
question followed. The Mason and 
Dixon line and the Ohio river formed 
the dividing-line between the free and the slave sections. Part 
of Missouri lay north and part south of this line. About this 



Henry Ceay. 


274 


History of the United States. 


time Maine applied for admission to the Union as a free state, 
which opened the way to a settlement known as the Missouri 
Compromise. Henry Clay was one of its chief advocates. 

The Missouri Compromise was an act passed by Congress, 
March, 1820, which provided: 

1. For the admission of Missouri to the Union as a slave 
state. 

2. That slavery should forever be prohibited in the Louisi¬ 
ana Territory (Missouri excepted)* north of 36° 30' of north 
latitude. 

3. An act was passed admitting Maine as a free state. 

Lafayette’s Visit to America, 1824. Lafayette, the friend 

of America in the struggle for Independence, paid a visit to the 
United States (1824), at the invitation of Congress and the 
President. He visited every one of the twenty-four States, and 
all the principal cities and towns. The fact that he had sacri¬ 
ficed fortune and the comforts of home to aid in giving inde¬ 
pendence to a nation across the sea, appealed to the American 
heart. Everywhere he went this aged benefactor was received 
with love and respect. He was present at the laying of the 
corner-stone of the Bunker Hill monument, June 17, 1825, 
when Webster gave one of his great orations. In appreci¬ 
ation of his services to this country, Congress voted him 
$200,000 in money, a township of land in Florida, and built a 
special ship, the Brandywine , to carry him home. > 

New Political Issues. In the early part of Washington’s 
administration the people divided on Hamilton’s financial 
policy. After this they differed on our relations with foreign 
nations, and from 1812 to 1815 they differed on the manage¬ 
ment of the war. Then followed a period of political rest, the 
“era of good feeling.” Soon, however, new issues appeared. 
The people began to favor measures which would promote the 
interests of their particular section. New England wanted 
higher tariffs, to encourage manufacturing. The planters of 
the South did not engage in any manufacturing, but raised a 

* No mention was made of the territory south of 36° 30'; but the people assumed and 
always took it for granted that the territory was open to slavery. 


The Monroe Doctrine—Protective Tariff. 275 

large amount of cotton, which they sold either in the North 
or in England. They wanted a low tariff, so they could buy 
the manufactured goods cheap. The West and the East wanted 
internal improvements at government expense to facilitate 
the exchange of their products. 

Presidential Election, 1824. Although these issues were 
attracting the attention of the people, they had but little 
effect in the selection of a president in 1824. There were four 
candidates : Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, John Quincy Adams 
of Massachusetts, Henry Clay of Kentucky, and William H. 
Crawford of Georgia. The campaign was largely personal. 
Each section had a favorite candidate, but no one received 
a majority of electoral votes; so the election went a second 
time to the House of Representatives. Henry Clay cast his 
influence for Adams, and Adams was elected President. John C. 
Calhoun was chosen Vice-President. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, 1825-1829. 

Adams’s Policy. Adams strongly favored internal improve¬ 
ments. He recommended Congress to vote money for build¬ 
ing public roads and canals and 
for improving harbors for navi¬ 
gation. He wished the government 
to build a national university and 
a naval school, and favored a high 
tariff. Like Hamilton, he placed 
a loose construction on the Con¬ 
stitution, and believed that the 
government, under “ implied pow¬ 
ers,” could vote money for inter¬ 
nal improvements even if the Con¬ 
stitution did not specifically au¬ 
thorize it. About $2,300,000 was 
appropriated for this purpose during his administration. Jack- 
son and Crawford combined their influence to defeat the meas¬ 
ures advocated by Adams. 

Death of Adams and Jefferson, 1826. Thomas Jefferson 



John Quincy Adams. 



276 


History of the United States. 


and John Adams both died July 4, 1826, fifty years to a day 
after the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was eighty 
years old, and Adams had attained the ripe age of ninety. 
Daniel Webster delivered an oration on the character of these 
great men, which today ranks as one of the classics of oratory. 

Removal of the Creek Indians. In 1802, when Georgia 
ceded the Mississippi Territory to the United States, the gov¬ 
ernment agreed to remove the Creek and Cherokee Indians 
from Georgia. To this they objected, so there was much de¬ 
lay in carrying out this promise. Some of the chiefs, who agreed 
to surrender the lands, were put to death by their tribes. The 
state of Georgia, dissatisfied with the delay, prepared to re¬ 
move the Indians by force, and thus came in conflict with both 
the Indian tribes and the general government. The difficulty 
was adjusted, finally, when the Indians consented to the re¬ 
moval ; so they were taken beyond the Mississippi, in 1826. 

Differences Between the North and the South Widen. 
The agricultural and industrial interests of the people were 
gradually growing apart. In the South were large plantations, 
on which with slave labor were cultivated cotton, rice, tobacco, 
and sugar-cane. But little interest was taken in manufac¬ 
turing and internal improvements. There were few large cities. 
In the North there were no large plantations. The farmers 
raised a variety of crops with free labor. The people eagerly 
made use of new inventions. The numerous good rivers made 
abundant power for mills and factories. Manufacturing soon 
became one of the chief industries. The two sections found 
that their interests and opinions differed widely on three im¬ 
portant questions: slavery, tariff, and internal improvements. 

Protective Tariff, 1824 and 1828. The tariff law of 1816 
was too low to suit the manufacturers in the North. They suc¬ 
ceeded in having a new tariff law passed (1824), placing a higher 
tax on imported goods which came in competition with Amer¬ 
ican products. The wool-growers and manufacturers were not 
satisfied even with this law. By combining with other inter¬ 
ests, they secured a higher tariff (1828). It greatly increased 
the duty on fabrics made of wool, cotton, and silk, and on iron 


The Monroe Doctrine—Protective Tariff. 277 

and lead products. The tariff was so high that it was called 
by some the “tariff of abominations.” 

The North favored a protective tariff because it protected 
the manufacturing interests, made wages higher, created a 
home market for the products of factory and farm, and, in 
the opinion of tariff advocates, made the country in general 
more prosperous. The South opposed a protective tariff, since 
it made them pay more for their manufactured goods, whether 
purchased in Europe or in the North. They received no more 
for their cotton, and did not share in the benefits of the law. 
“We buy dear and sell cheap,” they said; so they bitterly 
denounced the tariff system. 

New Political Parties. These new issues led to the forma¬ 
tion of new parties (1828). The Democratic-Republicans 
dropped the latter part of their name and ever since have been 
called Democrats. Adams and Clay and their followers took 
the name Republican, and to it they prefixed the term Na¬ 
tional. They favored a protective tariff, internal improvements 
at government expense, and a loose construction of the Con¬ 
stitution. 

A third party, called the Anti-Masonic, was formed. It had 
its origin in an incident which occurred at Batavia, New York. 
William Morgan, a former member of a Masonic lodge, was 
preparing to publish a book revealing the secrets of Masonry. 
He disappeared, and never was seen again. Many believed 
that Masons took his life. The new party, formed on this issue, 
opposed Masonry and other secret orders. 

Presidential Election, 1828. Andrew Jackson, the “hero 
of New Orleans, a man of the people,” was the Democratic 
candidate. He was immensely popular in the West, and the 
South was a unit for him, as he opposed the tariff of 1828. 
John Quincy Adams, the National Republican candidate, stood 
on his record as President. He was a man of the highest attain¬ 
ments, but knew not how to meet the great mass of people so 
as to win their confidence and good-will. 

Jackson received 178 electoral votes, Adams only 83, and 
William Wirt, the Anti-Masonic candidate, none. 


278 


History of the United States. 

Suggestions for Review. 

Discuss the “Era of Good Feeling.” What was the condition of political 
parties at this time? What led to the purchase of Florida? Discuss the 
Treaty of 1819. What was the Monroe Doctrine? What circumstances 
made the Monroe Doctrine necessary? Discuss slavery and its relation 
to the cotton industry. What was the Missouri Compromise? Who 
was its author? What territory was affected by the Missouri Compromise? 
Tell of Lafayette’s visit to America. What was the nature of the PresU 
dential campaign of 1824? Who were the candidates? What was a pro¬ 
tective tariff? Why did the people in the North favor the tariff and those 
in the South oppose it? What were the leading industries of each section? 

Tell something of Andrew Jackson, Holy Alliance, Henry Clay, Bunker 
Hill Monument, John Quincy Adams, internal improvements, Creek 
Indians, 1819, 1820, 1823, 1825. 


CHAPTER XXII. 

FROM JACKSON TO POLK. 

ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON, 1829-1837. 

Character of Jackson. Andrew Jackson is one of the most 
striking figures in American history. He was the first President 
to be elected from the new West, and 
was a pronounced type of frontier 
life. He had little education, but pos¬ 
sessed a vigorous and active mind. 

He had very strong opinions, and was 
always sure he was right, whether he 
was or not. He could not tolerate 
difference of opinion. Lack of agree¬ 
ment meant lack of friendship, and 
lack of friendship meant instant, open 
and ceaseless war. Obstacles never 
discouraged him, but always made 
him more determined to carry out 
his plans. His character was strong; 
his will inflexible. The people ad¬ 
mired and trusted him, hardly stop- 

. . . Andrew Jackson. 

pmg to inquire whether his views 

were right or his judgment sound. Their answer to criticism 
was, “Hurrah for Jackson!” 

The Spoils System. Soon after Jackson became President, 
he began dismissing government employes. In one year he 
removed over 700 officials,* who with their clerks and sub¬ 
ordinates made a change in the public service of nearly 2,000 
persons.* The presidents before him had as a rule removed 
officials only when incompetent. The whole number of removals 
for partisan purposes from Washington to Jackson was less than 

* Sumner’s Andrew Jackson, p. 190. 



279 


280 


History of the United States. 


one hundred. “To the victors belong the spoils,”* was Jack¬ 
son’s policy, which since his time has been put into practice 
to a greater or less degree by all political parties. According 
to this system the standard for appointment was party loyalty 
and not merit or competency. The result was poor service, as 
many persons were appointed to office who were not qualified 
to do the work. Another result was the building up of a strong 
political machine to keep the party in power. The evil of the 
spoils system remained until 1883, when a civil-service act was 
passed, and the merit system introduced in some branches of 
public service. 

State Rights, Nullification, and Secession. The advo¬ 
cates of State Rights claimed that the Constitution was a com¬ 
pact or agreement between the states, and that each state re¬ 
tained its sovereignty. Each state should decide for itself 
whether an act of the Federal Government was constitutional 
or not. Thus any state could declare a national law null and 
void within the state. This was called Nullification. By this 
theory the power of the state was greater than that of the 
nation. This doctrine carried with it the right of a state to 
secede from the Union. It first 
found expression in the Virginia and 
Kentucky Resolutions, 1798, and 
again in 1814, in the Hartford Con¬ 
vention. After the Tariff Act of 
1828, John C. Calhoun and Robert 
Y. Hayne became leading advocates 
of State Rights and Nullification. 

Webster-Hayne Debate, 1830. 
In 1830, Hayne, in a brilliant speech 
in the Senate, defended the doctrine 
of state rights and nullification, and 
severely attacked New England. Daniel Webster, of Massa¬ 
chusetts, defended New England and the supremacy of the 

* In ancient times the people of a city or country would wage war against those of an¬ 
other for the purpose of conquest. If successful, the victors would make slaves of their 
captives and rob them of all their valuables. These were the “spoils of war.” In politics 
the spoils are the salaried jobs. 



Daniel Webster. 


From Jackson to Polk . 


281 


Constitution. His speech ranks as one of the greatest in the 
annals of American oratory. He maintained that the Consti¬ 
tution is not a mere agreement; that the United States is a 
nation with supreme authority over the states; and that no 
state could annul a law of Congress or pass upon the national 
Constitution, and that state rights would disrupt the Union 
and lead to disaster. 

The closing words of his speech, “ Liberty and Union, now 
and forever, one and inseparable,” have come ringing down the 
decades as the expression of the patriotic sentiment of the 
American people.* 

Nullification Act, 1832. A new tariff act was passed, 1832, 
making slightly lower rates than in the act of 1828. This did 
not satisfy South Carolina. The legislature called a conven¬ 
tion, which declared the tariff act null and void within the state, 
forbade all persons to pay any tariff duties after February 1st, 
1833, and threatened the withdrawal of the state from the Union 
if the Federal Government should use force to collect the duties. 

Jackson’s Proclamation. The southern leaders hoped for 
aid and sympathy from Jackson, as he was not in favor of the 
high tariff, but h£, like Webster and Clay, was loyal to the 
Union, and saw that state rights was destructive to all govern¬ 
ment. He accordingly issued his famous proclamation against 
nullification, saying in effect: 1. That the Constitution is the 
supreme law of the land, and not an agreement between states; 
2. That a state could not nullify an act of Congress; 3. That 
he was determined to execute the laws and to preserve the Union. 

He forthwith ordered General Winfield Scott to go to Charles¬ 
ton with two war vessels and soldiers to enforce the laws. The 
sturdy, unbending character of Jackson was thus apparent in 
the civil crisis as it was at New Orleans when he won the title 
of “Old Hickory.” 

Tariff Compromise, 1833. The trouble between the Gov¬ 
ernment and South Carolina came to an end, 1833, when Henry 
Clay, the “Great Peacemaker,” succeeded in having a new 

* On the day set for Webster’s reply, great multitudes thronged the Senate chamber on 
the floor and galleries to hear him speak. 


282 


History of the United States. 


tariff law passed, gradually reducing the duties. South Carolina 
accepted this law and repealed her ordinance of nullification. 

Nominating Convention. The nomination of Presidents 
by national convention was introduced in the party campaign 
of 1832. About the same time, parties commenced to publish 
their views on public questions in statements called “Party 
Platforms.” Prior to this time the members of Congress met 
in “caucus” and selected presidential candidates; but in 1831 
the Anti-Masonic party held a national convention at Balti¬ 
more, which nominated William Wirt for President. This 
method was followed by all other parties, and has continued in 
use ever since. 

The National Republicans nominated Henry Clay; and the 
Democrats, Andrew Jackson, who received 219 out of 288 
electoral votes. The electors of South Carolina, enraged at 
Jackson for sending troops to enforce the laws, cast their votes 
for John Floyd of Virginia. These electors and those who 
agreed with them were called the nullifiers. 

Financial Troubles, 1832 to 1840. —Efforts to Re¬ 
charter the National Bank, 1832. In 1832, Congress passed a 
bill renewing the charter of the United States Bank. Jackson was \ 
very much opposed to the bank, believing that it was unconstitu¬ 
tional, a giant monopoly, and dangerous to the government and 
to the people. He accordingly vetoed the bill. Its advocates 
could not muster enough votes to pass it over the President’s 
veto, so four years later, when the charter expired, the Bank 
ceased to be the National Bank, but it continued to do business 
under a charter given by the state of Pennsylvania. 

Removal of Deposits. After he had defeated the renewal 
of the bank charter, Jackson continued his warfare on the bank 
by instructing Duane, the Secretary of the Treasury (1833), 
to remove the government money from the bank and put it in 
certain state banks. Duane refused to do this; so Jackson dis¬ 
missed him from office and appointed Roger B. Taney, who 
complied with the wish of the President. Nearly $10,000,000 
was on deposit. Taney issued the order, which required:. 1. 
That the public funds should be withdrawn from the bank, as 


From Jackson to Polk. 


283 


the government had need for the money; 2. That no more 
money should be placed in the bank. The new deposits were 
to be distributed among state banks (called from this order 
“pet banks”), selected by the Secretary of the Treasury. In 
this way the government money was soon transferred from the 
United States Bank to the state “pet banks.” The Senate con¬ 
sidered this a high-handed act, and passed a resolution cen¬ 
suring the President.* 

Wildcat State Banks. As soon as it became known that 
the charter of the United States Bank would not be renewed, 
many state banks were organized. The number increased from 
288 in 1832 to 583 in 1836. All of them issued paper money, 
which the people borrowed and used in business or speculation. 

Wild Speculation. This was a period of growth and rapid 
development along many lines. The building of canals, rail¬ 
roads, cities, towns, factories and mills occupied the attention 
of the people, and afforded many opportunities, good and bad, 
for the investor. Many investors went into wild speculation 
in public lands. They purchased large tracts which they par¬ 
celed into farms or city lots, and sold at high prices. The in¬ 
come from land sales in 1834 was less than $5,000,000; in 1835 
it was three times as great, and in 1836 it totaled $24,900,000. 
Most of the speculation was done with paper money, borrowed 
from the banks. This was paid to the land agent, who again 
deposited it in the bank, from which the speculators again 
borrowed the money to purchase more land. 

National Surplus. Meanwhile the finances of the nation 
had become most prosperous. The national debt was prac¬ 
tically paid in 1835. Money still continued to flow into the 
treasury from the tariff duties and the increased sale of public 
lands. After the debt was paid, money piled up rapidly in 
the treasury. January 1, 1836, the government had a surplus 
of $41,500,000 in banks, and no debt. What to do with the 
idle money was a question. Congress passed the Deposit 
Act (1836), reserving $5,000,000 for the government and pro- 

* Through the efforts of Senator Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri, the censure was ex¬ 
punged three years later. 


284 


History of the United States. 


viding for the distribution of the balance, $37,000,000,* among 
the several states in proportion to the number of senators and 
representatives each state had in Congress. 

Specie Circular, f The purchasers of public lands were pay¬ 
ing the government in state paper money. If the banks failed 
all this money would be worthless. Jackson became alarmed 
for the safety of the treasury, and issued an order, 1836, called 
the Specie Circular, which directed that nothing but gold and 
silver should thereafter be received in payment for public 
lands. 

Financial Panic of 1837. The Specie Circular made a 
great demand for gold and silver, and the people, who were 
heavily in debt on account of excessive speculation, could not 
get money to meet their obligations. To add to these troubles, 
the government withdrew nearly $28,000,000 from the banks 
and gave it to the states. The banks thus became short of 
money and were forced suddenly to call in their loans, which the 
people could not pay. Bank after bank failed, Factories and 
mills were forced to close their doors. Mercantile houses be¬ 
came bankrupt. The price of cotton dropped from twenty 
cents in 1836 to eight cents in 1837. Improvements stopped, 
and thousands of persons were thrown out of work. “Bread 
riots” took place in New York. This distress is known as the 
“financial panic of 1837.” 

Presidential Election, 1836. A new party, the Whig, had 
in the mean time appeared on the political horizon. As the old 
Whig party in New England and the other colonies opposed 
the arbitrary power of the King, so the new Whig party op¬ 
posed the arbitrary rule of the President. It was made up 
largely of the National Republicans and Democrats who no 
longer indorsed the iron rule of Jackson. £ William Henry 
Harrison was their candidate for President. The Democrats 

* This was to be paid in four quarterly installments; three payments were made, 
amounting to $28,000,000. Before the fourth was due the financial panic came, and left 
the government without funds. This money, intended as a loan, has never been repaid 
to the government. 

t By a joint resolution in 1838 Congress annulled the Specie Circular. 

t Those opposed to Jackson in 1834 called themselves Whigs, and in 1836 became a 
national party, called the Whig Party. 


From Jackson to Polk. 


285 


nominated Martin Van Buren, who was elected, receiving 170 
out of 296 electoral votes. His administration is noted for 
two things: one, the panic of 1837; the other, the creation 
of the Independent Treasury or Subtreasury system. 

MARTIN VAN BUREN, PRESIDENT, 1837-1841. 

Call for Government Help. The full crash of the financial 
panic came in Van Buren’s administration, and bore heavily on 
the country. There was a widespread 
demand that the government help the 
people out of their troubles. But the 
government shared in the distress. 

Revenues decreased from $50,826,000 
in 1836 to $24,954,000 in 1837, while 
expenses were increased by nearly 
$7,000,000. The government was 
forced to borrow money, and to issue 
interest-bearing treasury notes.* 

Time, economy, industry and ju¬ 
dicious investments were necessary to 
restore prosperity. " Martin Van Buren - 

The Independent Treasury and Subtreasury. Upon the 
recommendation of President Van Buren, f Congress, in 1840, 
passed the Independent Treasury Act. By this law a treasury 
was established at Washington, with branches called Subtreas¬ 
uries in important cities, in which to keep the government money 
instead of keeping it in banks. This system has continued in 
force ever since 1846, with some minor changes. One objection 
to it is the fact that the money which is stored in the treasuries 
is withdrawn from circulation. This was partially overcome 
by a clause in the National Bank Act, 1864, authorizing the 
Secretary of the Treasury to place a part of the government 
money, on security, in national banks in the various cities. In 

* Between 1837 and 1843, $47,002,900 of the treasury notes were issued, of which about 
one-third were reissues. When paper money became old and worn, the government re¬ 
issues new notes to take the place of the old ones. 

t Van Buren recommended the act, 1837, It was passed in 1840, repealed in 1841, 
and a new act passed in 1846. 



286 History of the United States. 

this way the surplus money of the government may be put to 
commercial use. 

The Black Hawk and Florida Indian Wars. The govern¬ 
ment policy of removing the Indians from regions settled by 
whites to the then unsettled country in the West, was the source 
of much trouble. 

The Sac and Fox Indians, led by their noted chief Black 
Hawk, refused to surrender lands in Illinois and Wisconsin. 
In the war which followed, the Indians were defeated and forced 
to go west of the Mississippi. 

Due largely to bad faith on the part of the United States 
in its treatment of the Seminole Indians in Florida, they took the 
war-path under Osceola, their chief, and for seven years (1835 
to 1842), committed many barbarities with tomahawk and 
scalping-knife. They were, however, compelled to yield in 
1842 to the strong hand of the government, and were taken to 
the Indian Territory beyond the Mississippi. 

ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENT, 1820 TO 1840. 

Two Conflicting Ideas. There were two great opposing 
forces at work on the slavery question: one, a deep and abid¬ 
ing conviction that slavery was wrong,—wrong morally, so¬ 
cially, and politically. This belief made martyrs of some men, 
who were ready to sacrifice all in life to advance the cause of 
freedom. The other force was the desire to protect self- 
interests. Slaves and slave labor were the chief source of wealth 
to the planters of the South, who were the ruling class. To 
them the abolition of slavery seemed to mean financial ruin. 
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was an incident in the clash 
of these two ideas. Forward they went, step by step, each 
struggling for supremacy, until the final conflict came, and ended 
with the Civil War (1861-65). 

Abolitionists. The sentiment for the abolition of slavery 
constantly grew stronger under the agitation of such men as 
Benjamin Lundy, James G. Birney, William Lloyd Garrison, 
Elijah P. Lovejoy, Wendell Phillips and others. Each of these 
excepting Phillips published anti-slavery papers, which exerted 


From Jackson to Polk. 


287 


a wide influence in creating sentiment against slavery. Garri¬ 
son and friends went about forming abolition societies. Rep¬ 
resentatives from ten states met at 
Philadelphia, 1833, and formed the Amer¬ 
ican Anti-Slavery Society, which society 
flooded the country north and south with 
anti-slavery papers and handbills. The 
feeling in the South was intense against 
the Abolitionists. Anti-slavery docu¬ 
ments were destroyed. The legislatures 
of five southern states called upon the 
North to suppress the Abolitionists. 

Jackson asked Congress to pass a law 
which would exclude anti-slavery papers 
from the mails in the South. Five thousand dollars reward 
was offered by the state of Georgia for the arrest of Garrison. 

At first, people in the North were not in sympathy with the 
Abolitionists. The Philanthropist, published by Birney, was 
twice destroyed. The Observer, published by Lovejoy at 
at Alton, Illinois, was destroyed twice by a mob, and he was 
killed while defending his press from a third attack. Garri¬ 
son, the editor of the Liberator, was dragged about the streets 
of Boston. With difficulty his life was saved by the aid of the 
police, but he continued to publish the Liberator until the slaves 
were free. 

The Right of Petition Denied. The “Gag Rule.” 

Numerous petitions were sent to Congress asking for the 
abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia. In order to 
keep down discussion on the slavery question, Congress passed 
a rule not to receive any petition on the slavery question. 
This was called the “gag rule.” It was probably in violation 
of the Constitution, which says that Congress shall make no 
law abridging “the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.” 
This arbitrary action of Congress only served to increase senti¬ 
ment against slavery. More and more petitions were sent 
to ex-President John Quincy Adams, now a Representative 



288 


History of the United States. 


from Massachusetts, who continued to introduce them in 
Congress; but all were laid on the table without discussion. 
Adams was threatened with expulsion from Congress, but 
he continued to fight the *“gag law” for eight years, and finally 
succeeded in having it repealed, 1844. 

Liberal Party, 1840. Neither Whigs nor Democrats would 
take sides on the slavery question. Those who were in favor 
of freeing the slaves left the old parties and formed a new party, 
1840, called the Liberty Party. 

Presidential Election, 1840. In the election which fol¬ 
lowed, in 1840, there were three presidential candidates. The 
Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison; the Democrats, 
Martin Van Buren; and the Liberty Party, James G. Birney, 
a former Alabama planter who had come to the North and had 
been converted to the abolition cause. The Whigs favored 
the renewal of the United States Bank and a higher tariff. 
They opposed the policies of Jackson and his followers, and 
some wished to restrict the extent of slavery. 

The Democrats favored the Sub-Treasury, a tariff for rev¬ 
enue only, and a strict construction of the Constitution. They 
opposed the bank and national internal improvements, and 
wanted the settlement of the slavery question left to the states. 

The Liberty party advocated the abolition of slavery. 

The campaign was unique, and was attended by great ex¬ 
citement. Harrison, the hero of the battle of Tippecanoe, 
had at one time lived a simple life in a log cabin on a farm in 
Ohio. Van Buren was more aristocratic, and not so popular 
with the’common people. A Baltimore newspaper, in attempt¬ 
ing to ridicule Harrison, said he would be more at home in a 
“log cabin drinking cider and skinning coons” than in the 
White House serving the nation as President. Log cabins and 
hard cider were very common in those days, and soon they 
were made the emblem of the campaign by the Whigs. Log 
cabins and hard cider were hauled about the streets in parade. 
Log cabins were built for Whig headquarters. A barrel of 
cider stood close by, and on the door hung a coonskin and a 
leather latchstring as a sign of hospitality. The campaign 


From Jackson to Polk. 


289 


meetings became popular. Men flocked by hundreds for 
many miles, taking whole families to the meetings. The 
campaign became a sort of picnic holiday affair. The Whigs 
were victorious, Harrison being chosen President and Tyler 
Vice-President. * 

HARRISON AND TYLER, 1841-1845. 

President Harrison. William Henry Harrison was inau¬ 
gurated President, March 4, 1841. After choosing an able 
cabinet, with Daniel Webster at the 
head as Secretary of State, and after 
issuing a call for a special session of 
Congress, Harrison became sick and 
died, April 4th, one month after the 
inauguration. Vice - President John 
Tyler succeeded him.f Harrison was 
the first President to die in office. 

The sad event cast a cloud of grief 
over the whole nation. 

Quarrel between Tyler and Con¬ 
gress. Tyler, the new President, for 
many years had been a Democrat, 
but he revolted against the iron rule of Jackson, and became an 
ardent supporter of Clay, who in 1840 sought the nomination 
for President on the Whig ticket. When the nomination went 
to Harrison, the convention sought to conciliate the Clay sup¬ 
porters by nominating Tyler for the vice-presidency, and at 
the same time secure a candidate that would draw a heavy 
Democratic vote. When Tyler unexpectedly became Presi¬ 
dent there was doubt whether he would carry out Democratic 
principles or act with the Whig leaders. He retained Harrison’s 
cabinet, but soon found himself at variance with the cabi¬ 
net members and other leading Whigs. The Congress which 

* Tyler was a states rights Democrat, but opposed to Jackson’s policies. The Whigs 
nominated him for Vice-President, to be sure to carry the southern vote and secure the 
election of Harrison. Harrison carried nineteen out of twenty-six States, and received 
234 out of 294 electoral votes. 

t No provision had been made for filling the office of Vice-President in case of a vacancy. 



William Henry Harrison. 


290 


History of the United States. 


Harrison had called met in special session, repealed the Sub¬ 
treasury Act, and passed an act called the bankruptcy law, for 
the relief of those who had failed 
in business. Both bills received the 
approval of Tyler, but when Con¬ 
gress passed a bill incorporating a- 
new United States Bank, which was 
a favorite measure of the Whigs, the 
President vetoed it. After stren¬ 
uous efforts, they secured the assent 
of Tyler to the provisions of another 
bank bill, but when it reached him 
he again affixed his veto. The Whigs, 
who had elected Tyler, were now in¬ 
dignant. Every member of his cab¬ 
inet except Webster, who was at the 
time negotiating an important treaty England, resigned. In 
1842, after a long struggle, in the course of which two bills were 
vetoed, a new tariff law was passed. The succession of Tyler 
to the presidency deprived the Whigs of much of the fruits of 
their victory. Soon, howeverhe found himself without many 
supporters among either the Whigs or the Democrats. 

The Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842. In the mean 
time Daniel Webster, representing the United States, and Lord 
Ashburton, representing Great Britain, concluded a treaty 
(1842), which fixed the northern boundary of Maine. This 
had been in dispute ever since the Treaty of Paris (1783). 
By the terms of the latter treaty the boundary of Maine was 
placed along the St. Croix river to its source; then north to 
the highlands, then “ along the said highlands which divide 
those rivers that empty themselves into the river St. Lawrence 
from those that fall into the Atlantic Ocean; thence to the 
northwesternmost head of the Connecticut river; thence down 
along the middle of that stream to the 45th degree of north 
latitude.” A glance at the map will show that there are two 
highlands between the ocean and the St. Lawrence. Great 
Britain claimed the lower highlands and the United States 



John Tyler. 


From Jackson to Polk. 


291 


claimed the upper highlands as the boundary.. Great Britain 
argued that the rivers between the two highlands flow into the 
St. John river and 
the St. John flows 
into the Bay of 
Fundy, which is not 
the Atlantic Ocean. 

The United States 
said that the Bay 
of Fundy is an arm 
of the Atlantic Ocean , 
and therefore a part 
of the Atlantic sys¬ 
tem, but in no way 
is it a part of the 
St. Lawrence sys¬ 
tem; therefore the 
boundary should be 
placed at the upper 
highlands. The dis¬ 
pute was finally set¬ 
tled (1842), by the 
We b s t e r - Ashbur¬ 
ton Treaty, which 
established the 
present boundary of 
Maine.* About seven-twelfths of the disputed territory was 
given to the United States and five-twelfths to Great Britain. 
A study of the Treaty of Paris, viewed from our present knowl¬ 
edge of the territory in dispute, convinces us that England had 
no just claims, and that the United States was entitled to all 
land to the upper highlands. 

Both nations also agreed to keep vessels along the coast of 
Africa to suppress the slave trade. 

* The boundary was fixed from the source of the St. Croix due north to the St. John 
river, along the St. John to the St. Francis, up the St. Francis, then southwesterly to the 
crest of the mountains, then along the crest of the mountains to Hall’s stream, down Hall’s 
stream to the 45th degree, thence due west to the St. Lawrence river. 







































292 


History of the United States . 


Domestic Troubles. There had been a gradual growth in 
the country of the idea of “ equal rights to all.” But certain 
laws that were opposed to this idea were still in force. Two 
notable examples were the Patroon system, in New York, and 
the Charter Government of Rhode Island. The latter was the 
cause of Dorr’s Rebellion, the former was the cause of the Anti¬ 
rent difficulties. 

Dorr’s Rebellion. Rhode Island still retained the old 
charter given by Charles II., 1663, which was quite liberal for 
the time when given, but not in keeping with the growth of 
republican ideas. Only property-owners and the oldest son 
of each of these were allowed to vote. Thus two-thirds of the 
men of voting age were deprived of the ballot. A change in the 
laws was demanded. The non-voters, called the Suffrage Party, 
made a new constitution and elected Thomas W. Dorr as 
Governor. The regular voters, called the “Law and Order 
Party,” also elected a governor (1842). Both sides took up 
arms and threatened war. On the approach of the state militia, 
supported by the authority of the Federal Government, Dorr’s 
followers fled. He was arrested for treason, and convicted 
(1844), but a year later was pardoned from serving a life sen¬ 
tence. A new constitution was formed by the Law and Order 
Party, granting to the people some of the rights which had for¬ 
merly been refused. 

Anti-Rent Difficulties. Descendants of the Dutch Pa- 
troons (see p. 81) still held large estates in New York. At¬ 
tempts of the proprietors to collect back rents were resisted 
by the tenants, Disturbance and even violence reigned for 
ten years (1838-1849). The landholders were finally bought 
out by the state of New York. 

Mormons. Joseph Smith, a young man living in Palmyra, 
New York, claimed that an angel of the Lord gave him golden 
plates inscribed with a message from Heaven. This message 
he published (1830), and called the “Book of Mormon.” He 
made the alleged revelation the basis for a new and strange 
religious doctrine. Smith and his followers moved to Ohio, and 
then to Jacksonville, Missouri, where their numbers increased 


From Jackson to Polk. 


293 


rapidly. Their doctrines and practices were obnoxious to the 
people, who drove them out of the state. The Mormons next 
built the city of Nauvoo, Illinois, (1839-1840,) where they 
erected a Mormon temple. Here, too, they incurred the ill- 
will of other people. Smith, as their prophet, and his brother, 
were arrested and taken to jail at Carthage. The people, be¬ 
lieving that Smith’s teachings were harmful to the country, 
stormed the jail and killed both Smith and his brother, and the 
state legislature annulled the charter for the city of Nauvoo. 

Brigham Young next became prophet, and led his followers 
to Council Bluffs, Iowa, and a year later (1847) they moved to 
the desert region at Salt Lake, and, after.sanctioning polygamy, 
began building a city and a Mormon temple. By diverting the 
water from the mountain streams into ditches for irrigation, the 
barren, dry soil was converted into rich, productive fields of 
growing crops, that now support a populous city made up of 
both Mormons* and Gentiles.f 

* In 1890, Wilford Woodward, president of the Mormon Church, issued an order pro¬ 
hibiting plural marriages, but not annulling those already contracted. The constitution 
of the State of Utah also prohibits plural marriages. 

t Gentiles is a name given by the Mormons to all persons not of their faith. 


Suggestions for Review. 

Tell of the life and character of Andrew Jackson. What was the “spoils 
system”? Doctrine of Nullification? What did South Carolina do about 
the tariff of f832? What was Jackson’s attitude toward Nullification? 
Tell of the Web3ter-Hayne debate. When were presidential candidates 
first nominated by conventions? What became of the National Bank? 
What is meant by a “national surplus”? What was done with the sur¬ 
plus in 1836? What were “pet banks”? What was the cause and result 
of the wild speculation? Tell of the financial panic of 1837. Who was 
■chosen to succeed Jackson? 

What is the United States Treasury? What are Subtreasuries? Tell - 
something of the slavery movement from 1820-1840. Of the Liberty 
Party. Of the Campaign of 1840. Of the death of Harrison. Discuss 
the Webster-Ashburton Treaty. 

Tell something of: J. C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, Martin Van Buren, 
Black Hawk, William Lloyd Garrison, Elijah P. Lovejoy, Wendell Phillips, 
Mormons, Thomas Dorr; Specie Circular; 1837, 1842. 


CHAPTER XXIII. 

INVENTIONS AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Industries, 1800. The United States in 1800 was a nation 
of farmers, over nine-tenths of the people being engaged in 
agricultural pursuits. Land was cheap and plentiful, and farm¬ 
ing profitable. The people in the South paid but little atten¬ 
tion to manufacturing, although they had vast deposits of 
iron ore, boundless tracts of timber, and excellent mill and fac¬ 
tory sites; but, neglecting to make use of these gifts of na¬ 
ture, they centered their energies in the cultivation of cotton, 
rice and tobacco, of which they shipped great quantities to 
Europe. With the money received from these commodities 
they purchased merchandise for the home and plantation. 
Thus in the course of time a great trade grew up between the 
South and Great Britain, part of which might have been car¬ 
ried on between the North and the South. The people in the 
North, however, not only cultivated the soil, raising wheat, 
corn, oats, cattle, hogs, and a variety of crops, but they also 
made use of the natural resources as well as of many inven¬ 
tions. Manufacturing, shipbuilding, commerce and fishing soon 
became important industries. 

Manufacturing. During the war of 1812, when commerce 
was suspended with Great Britain and France, our manu¬ 
facturing industries made rapid growth. On return of peace, 
however, they .were threatened with ruin. European manufac¬ 
turers, whose goods were made by cheap labor, could under¬ 
sell manufacturers in America, where wages were higher. Eng¬ 
lish manufacturers, eager to regain the trade which they had 
lost by the war, began to sell goods in America below London 
prices. Other nations of Europe also tried to secure some 
of the trade which hitherto had been monopolized by England. 

294 


Inventions and Industrial Development. 295 

In 1816 the imports from Great Britain alone amounted to 
8155,000,000. Many American mills and factories were forced 
to close. Men who had invested their capital made an out¬ 
cry against such conditions and sent memorials to Congress ask¬ 
ing for protection. 

Protective Tariff, 1816. In response to these petitions, 
Congress passed a new tariff act, 1816, placing higher duties 
on imported goods. This was the beginning of the protective 
tariff system which has been a feature of our government since 
that time. Thus encouraged, the manufacturing interests of 
the nation grew rapidly. In 1820 175,000,000 was invested 
in mills and factories, in which about 200,000 persons were em¬ 
ployed, and in 1860 the total value of the factory products was 
$1,885,000,000, and during the same year $379,000,000 was 
paid for labor. 

Samuel Slater and Francis Lowell. The invention of 
textile machinery by the English from 1765 to 1785 revolution¬ 
ized the methods of weaving cloth. England thus gained a 
monopoly of the cloth industry, and by passing laws which 
prevented the shipment of any textile machines, models, plans 
or tools from the country, they hoped to retain that monopoly. 
America was eager to adopt the English methods. Although 
the legislatures of several of the states offered bounties for such 
methods and machines, none could be secured. An American 
paper containing an offer of a bounty of this character fell into 
the hands of Samuel Slater, foreman of an English cotton factory. 
Attracted by the advertisement, he came to the United States, 
and in 1790 built at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, the first cotton¬ 
spinning factory in America, making the machinery himself. 
In 1814 Francis Lowell set up at Waltham, Massachusetts, a 
factory with 1,700 spindles,—the first in the world to include 
spinning and weaving in the same building. 

In those days the machinery was run by water-power, and 
factories had to be located on streams; but later the use of 
steam gave greater power and - permitted them to be located 
in any city. From these small beginnings, in a few decades 
the weaving of cloth became an important industry. The value 


296 


History of the United States. 


of the goods turned out by the cotton mills of the United States 
alone amounted in 1860 to $115,000,000. 

Commerce 1800 to 1860. After France declared war against 
England, in 1792, and all Europe was drawn into the conflict, 
great bodies of men were taken from the field and factory to 
serve as soldiers. In this way a great demand was created 
for our farm products abroad. American merchants were 
quick to seize the opportunity, and sent shipload after ship¬ 
load of wheat, flour, corn, bacon and cotton abroad in exchange 
for cotton and woolen cloth, hardware, china, glass, cutlery, etc. 

This commercial prosperity was temporarily checked by the 
Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812, and our foreign 
trade was not fully regained until 1830. From this date 
there was a marked increase, and by 1860 our imports amounted 
to $353,000,000 and exports to $333,000,000. 

Inventions. Inventions have played an important part in 
the progress of the American people. With freedom of govern¬ 
ment came freedom of thought, and freedom of thought was a 
great stimulus to American inventive genius. During the first 
half of the nineteenth century more labor-saving machines were 
invented than in all the history of the world before, and most 
of these were the creations of American minds. In addition 
to the cotton-gin, steamboat, and steam engine, there were the 
sewing-machine, reaper, thresher, telegraph, Hoe cylinder print¬ 
ing-press, and an almost endless number of other inventions. * 

Sewing-Machine. On account 
of the great improvements made in 
the early part of the century in spin¬ 
ning and weaving, the looms were 
able to turn out cloth faster than 
busy hands could make it into gar¬ 
ments. The inventive genius of Elias 
Howe contrived to supply the need 
by the construction of a sewing-ma¬ 
chine, the greatest of all labor-saving 
machines for the home and a blessing 
to all women. After obtaining his 



Howe’s First Sewing-Machine. 




Inventions and Industrial Development. 


297 


patent, in 1846, he spent four years at home and abroad in 
extreme poverty, trying to convince the people of the merits 
of his invention. When its usefulness became known his pov¬ 
erty was rapidly turned to wealth, his royalties amounting in 
1863 to $4,000 a day. Improvements have been made by 
Wheeler, Wilson, Baker, and Singer, and to the combined efforts 
of these men we are indebted for 
the sewing-machine as we know it 
today. In addition to the machine 
for domestic use are those which 
sew all forms of heavy cloth, books, 
shoes, harness, and leather goods. 

The Harvester and Reaper. 

The farmer, too, has shared the 
benefits of the American inventive 
genius. For years the sickle, scythe 
and cradle had been the instruments with which he cut his 
grain. With the sickle his work was very slow and tedious; 
when the cradle came into use he believed that the golden 



Cutting Grain with the Sickle. 









298 


History of the United States. 


age of invention had come; but the invention of the 
mower and harvester was beyond his fondest dreams. 
These machines made a complete revolution in grain-cut- 



CUTTING AND BINDING THE GRAIN. 


ting, and made possible the great grain-fields of the West. 
One man with a team of horses could cut more grain in a 
day than twenty men could do 
swinging cradles. Cyrus H. Mc¬ 
Cormick, the inventor of the mower, 
secured a patent in 1834, but con¬ 
tinued until 1840 to make improve¬ 
ments before marketing the ma¬ 
chine. The manufacture of these 
machines soon became an important 
industry, and the use of them in¬ 
dispensable to the farmer. Follow¬ 
ing the reaper came the “binder,” 
Cyrus H. McCormick. which not Only Cut the grain but 
bound it into sheaves, and following 
the “binder” came the “header,” which gathered only the grain 
heads, leaving the straw uncut. 

From Flail to Thresher. Not many years ago farmers 
threshed their grain by beating it from the straw with flails, or 
by treading it out by riding horses over the sheaves spread 
on barn floors. The grain was then removed from the straw 
and chaff by raking and fanning. The threshing-machine was 









Inventions and Industrial Development. 


299 



Threshing Grain with a Flail. 


next invented. By means of a rotating cylinder filled with iron 
teeth, the grain and chaff were torn from the straw, and by the use 
of a fanning-mill the chaff was sepa¬ 
rated from the grain. The two ma¬ 
chines were later combined into one, 
and steam instead of horse-power 
was applied. With the steam 
thresher over a thousand bushels of 
wheat can be threshed in a day>. 

The thresher and reaper built into a 
single machine and drawn by thirty 
horses is used in some of the large 
grain-fields on the Pacific slope. 

This machine cuts, threshes and 
sacks the grain ready for market. 

Telegraph. The great inventions of this period (1800-1860) 
were not limited to labor-saving machinery nor to improved 
methods of transportation. One of 
the most remarkable inventions was 
that of the “magnetic telegraph,” 
by Professor Samuel F. B. Morse. 

By it, messages may be sent with the 
speed of lightning to the remotest 
regions penetrated by the wires. 

His patent for the telegraph was se¬ 
cured in 1837, and thereafter for 
seven years he labored at home and 
in Europe, through poverty and dis¬ 
couragement, to convince the in¬ 
credulous people of the practical 
value of his invention. They looked 
upon him as a dreamer and upon the machine as a scientific toy. 
No one would advance money to build a telegraph line, until 
finally, after a long and patient struggle, Congress (1844) voted 
$30,000 with which to construct a line from Baltimore to Wash¬ 
ington. The first message sent over the wires was, “What hath 
God wrought!” The invention was an immediate success, and 



Samuel F. B. Morse. 


300 


History of the United States. 



proved that the inventor was not an idle dreamer, but a real 
genius whose purpose could not be stopped by poverty or the 
skepticism and ridicule of others. The use of the telegraph 
spread rapidly in the United States and Europe. By 1860 it 
was connecting principal cities in every state in the Union, and a 
year later messages could be sent from New York to San Fran¬ 
cisco. Now every civilized country in the world is interwoven 
with a network of connecting lines, and messages may be sent 
around the globe. 

Atlantic Cable, 1857-1866. The success of the telegraph 
on land soon led to a movement to try it under water. In 1854 
Cyrus W. Field, of New York, helped to lay a cable that joined 
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Encouraged by his suc¬ 
cess, he conceived the idea of laying a cable across the At¬ 
lantic Ocean. Aided by business men in America and England 
and by an appropriation from Congress, he began to lay the 
cable in 1857, but the attempt ended in a failure, and a second 
effort likewise failed. In the third attempt, in 1858, a cable 
was stretched from Newfoundland to Ireland, but within a 
month it ceased to work. No further attempt was made until 
1866, when Field succeeded in laying a trans-Atlantic cable 
that became a permanent success. 

Other Inventions. In 1844 Charles Goodyear discovered 
a process of “vulcanizing” rubber, so that it could be made into 
shoes and garments; and in 1847 Richard M. Hoe invented the 
revolving cylinder printing-press, a remarkable machine for 
facilitating printing. Improvements in the art of printing are 
well illustrated by a comparison of a printing-press used by 



Inventions and Industrial Development. 301 

Benjamin Franklin in the latter part of the eighteenth century, 
with a modern printing-press. Other inventions of merit and 
worth made in this period are too numerous to mention. They 
include a variety of machines for improved methods of carding, 
spinning, weaving, and dyeing, great improvements in artisans’ 
tools, plows and other agricultural implements, cooking-stoves, 
boot-and-shoe machines, and in almost every line of industry. 


Suggestions for Review. 

Tell of the industries of the United States about 1800. What states 
did most manufacturing? Who built the first cotton-spinning factory? 
What led to a demand for American products in Europe? When was our 
commerce with Europe destroyed? When was it restored? What have 
inventions had to do with progress in America? In what way? What 
are labor-saving machines? What ones came into use? Who invented 
the reaper? What was the binder? The thresher? The header? Tell 
of the telegraph. The Atlantic cable. The sewing-machine. Tell of 
other inventions. Of the progress made because of machinery. 

Who was Elias Howe? Isaac M. Singer, Samuel F. B. Morse, Cyrus 
H. McCormick, Cyrus W. Field, Richard M. Hoe, Charles Goodyear? 


CHAPTER XXIV, 


STRUGGLE FOR MORE TERRITORY, RESULTING 
IN THE MEXICAN WAR. 

TEXAS AND OREGON. 

Early History and Settlement of Texas. After the pur¬ 
chase of Louisiana both Spain and the United States claimed 
Texas. But by the Florida Treaty the United States gave up 

all her claims on this 
land. When Mexico de¬ 
clared her independence 
of Spain, 1821, and two 
years later became a re¬ 
public under the name of 
the United States of 
Mexico, Texas was a part 
of that republic. 

Moses Austin, a citizen 
of the United'States, se¬ 
cured a large grant of 
land in Texas from the 
Mexican government 
(1820), on which to plant 
a colony. He died soon 
after receiving the grant, 
but his son, Stephen F. 
Austin, took up the work, 
and made a settlement 
in Texas in 1821. The 
scheme was a success. 
Others besides Austin secured grants, and led settlers from the 
United States to Texas. By 1830 a large American population, 
chiefly from the southern states, had settled there. 

302 










Struggle for more Territory—Mexican War. 303 

Texas a Republic, 1826-1845. When the Mexican Re¬ 
public (1829) passed a law freeing all slaves in Mexico, Texas 
refused To obey it. In this, as in other matters, the American 
settlers found themselves wholly out of sympathy with the 
Mexican government. So they rebelled, and set up a re¬ 
public (1835), with a constitution favoring slavery. Santa Anna, 
the President of Mexico, led an army into Texas to put down the 
rebellion. Sam Houston, who had a short time before come from 
the United States, was placed at the head of the Texan army, and 
completely defeated the Mexican forces at San Jacinto (April 
21, 1836). Houston was chosen President of the new republic. 
A little later (1837) Texas applied for admission to the Union 
as a slave state, but this proposal was defeated by the Senators 
from the free states; so Texas, for the time, remained a re¬ 
public. 

The Oregon Country. — Its Early History. Four na¬ 
tions originally laid claim to the Oregon Country—England, 
the United States, Russia, and Spain. But Spain, by the 
Florida treaty, gave up all claim to the Pacific coast north of 
the 42nd parallel, and Russia in 1824 relinquished her claim 
to territory south of 54° 40'. England and the United States 
thus became the only claimants for the territory between the 
Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, lying between Mexico 
and Russian Alaska.* 

An effort, in 1818, to fix a boundary line between Canada and 
the United States through the Oregon Country had failed. 
The United States and Great Britain then agreed to a joint 
occupation of the country, with the understanding that either 
nation could end the agreement by giving to the other a year’s 
notice. 

Emigration to Oregon. This country began to attract 
the attention of settlers about 1842. Before this time the 
people who went to Oregon were mostly explorers, trappers, 
missionaries, and servants of trading companies. Among them 
was Dr. Marcus Whitman, who with a few companions entered 

* The northern boundary of Mexico was the 42nd parallel. The southern boundary 
of Alaska was 54° 40\ 


304 


History of the United States. 


the Columbia valley in 1835, as a missionary among the Indians. 
In 1842 he came east on business connected with his missionary 



The Oregon Country. 


The Oregon Country included the territory west of tfle mountain-crest between parallels 
42° and 54° 40'. By the treaty of 1846 the United States received the territory south of 
the 49th parallel, and Great Britain received all the land north of it. 


work. Realizing that the Oregon Country was in danger of 
falling into the possession of the British, who were already carry- 











Struggle for. more Territory—Mexican War. 305 

ing on an extensive fur trade there, Whitman on returning to 
Oregon in 1842, conducted a train of 200 wagons and 1,000 
emigrants to that region. Other homeseekers followed, and in a 
few years several thousand Americans had founded homes there. 
A demand now went up for the settlement of the boundary. 

Desire for more Slave Territory. While many settlers 
were moving into the Northwest, other persons were eagerly 
trying to annex territory in the Southwest. The Missouri Com¬ 
promise had excluded slavery in the Louisiana Territory north 
of 36° 30'. The territory south of this line, which was open 
to slavery, was small, while the territory north of it was large. 
(See map, p. 326.) The time was near at hand when Congress 
could no longer admit a slave state to balance the admission 
of each new free state. With more free states in the Union 
than slave states, Congress could pass legislation against 
slavery. It therefore became important that the slave interests 
get more territory. Efforts were several times made to purchase 
Texas, but Mexico refused to sell. Colonization and then revo¬ 
lution succeeded in separating Texas from Mexico. Annexa¬ 
tion to the United States became the next act in the political 
drama. 

Election of 1844. In .1844 the Democratic party nomi¬ 
nated James Knox Polk for President, and declared for the 
“reoccupation of Oregon and the reannexation of Texas.” 
The first sentiment was popular in the North; the second was 
popular in the South. “All of Oregon or none,” and “54-40 
or fight” was the inviting campaign cry of the Democrats. 

The Whigs nominated Henry Clay, a magnetic and very 
popular candidate. Their platform was silent on the question 
of extending our territory. In vain they tried to turn the 
campaign to old issues—tariff, bank, and internal improvements. 
The Liberty party nominated James G. Birney. Many anti¬ 
slavery Whigs thought Clay was not as firmly opposed to the 
annexation of Texas as he should be, so they cast their votes 
for Birney, thus helping the Democrats to carry northern states, 
and to elect Polk, who carried seven free and seven slave states. 


306 History of the United States. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES KNOX POLK, 1845-1849. 

Polk’s Plans. Polk, stern and determined in his ways* 
entered upon his duties as President with definite notions of 
what he wished to do. He planned 
to reduce the tariff, to reestablish 
the Independent Treasury, to settle 
the Oregon boundary, and to annex 
Texas and acquire California. He 
chose an able cabinet; the more im¬ 
portant members being James Bu¬ 
chanan, of Pennsylvania, Secretary 
of State; William G. Marcy, of New 
York, Secretary of War;, George 
Bancroft, of Massachusetts, the his¬ 
torian, Secretary of the Navy; 
Robert J. Walker of Mississippi, 
Secretary of the Treasury. The Sub¬ 
treasury was reestablished, and a new tariff act, materially 
reducing the duties, was passed, 1846. 

Settlement of the Oregon Boundary, 1846. The annex¬ 
ation of all of Texas meant war with Mexico, and the occupation 
of all of Oregon (to 50° 40') probably would have meant war 
with Great Britain, for England would never have consented 
to an act which would close her Canadian outlet to the Pacific 
Ocean. The annexation of slave territory was nearest Polk’s 
heart; so he chose to take the slave territory and engage in 
war with a weak nation, rather than take the free territory and 
engage in war with a strong nation. After some negotiation, a 
treaty was made with Great Britain in 1846, fixing the Oregon 
boundary on the 49th parallel; this being a continuation of the 
boundary line as fixed east of the mountains in 1819. The 
United States thus received considerably more than half of the 
disputed territory. As England had well-established rights in 
the region by discovery, exploration and settlement, the com¬ 
promise was honorable and just; but it was contrary to the 
platform upon which Polk was elected. 



James Knox Polk. 


Struggle for more Territory—Mexican War. 307 

The Annexation of Texas. President Tyler, believing the 
result of the election in 1844 justified immediate action, began 
to form plans for bringing Texas into the Union. Two methods 
of annexation were considered—one by treaty, the other by 
joint resolution. A treaty would have required a two-thirds 
vote of the Senate to ratify it, which could not be obtained. A 
joint resolution required only a majority vote. This plan was 
adopted, and the President was given authority to invite Texas 
into the Union. March 3, 1845, the day before Tyler left office, 
he sent a messenger in haste to the Republic of Texas, with 
proposals for immediate union. Texas accepted, and the fol¬ 
lowing December (1845), an act was passed by which— 

(1) Texas was annexed to the United States as a slave state. 

(2) Slavery was prohibited in that portion of Texas which 
lay north of 36° 30'.- 

(3) Not to exceed four new states might be formed out of 
Texas. 

Other States Admitted. By an act of Congress, March 3, 

1845, two new states, Iowa and Florida, were offered admission 
to the Union—one free, the other slave. Florida at once com¬ 
plied with the act, and was admitted the same year. Iowa, on 
account of some boundary trouble, was not admitted until 

1846. This act still kept up the balance of power, there being 
now fourteen free and fourteen slave states. The admission of 
Texas, however, gave the slave power the advantage, but the 
balance was again restored, for the last time, by the admission 
of Wisconsin, in 1848. The Oregon Country was organized as 
a territory the same year, with a clause excluding slavery. 
The constitution of the state of Oregon (admitted 1859) ex¬ 
cluded from the state all free persons of color. 

Boundary Dispute. Texas, supported by the United 
States, claimed all the territory to the Rio Grande river, from 
its mouth to its source. Mexico, on the other hand, asserted 
that Texas extended only to the Nueces river, as it did when 
Texas was a part of Mexico. President Polk sent an army 
under General Zachary Taylor to occupy the disputed territory. 
Mexico, poor, weak, and torn with internal strife, in the face of 


308 


History of the United States. 


certain defeat sent troops to defend the unjust encroachment of 
the United States. The two armies met and war was the re¬ 
sult, just as Polk had intended it should be. 

THE MEXICAN WAR. 

Plans of the War. 1 . General Zachary Taylor was to 
lead an army into the disputed territory and penetrate 
northern Mexico. 2. General Stephen W. Kearny was to 
march from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and take New Mexico 
and California. 3. California was also to be attacked by a 
naval force under the command, at first, of Commodore J. D. 
Sloat, who was soon succeeded by Commodpre Robert F. 
Stockton. 4. General Winfield Scott in 1847 was to advance 
by way of Vera Cruz to capture the capital of Mexico. 

Taylor’s Army of Occupation, and Declaration of War. 
Taylor went from New Orleans (July, 1845) by water to Corpus 
Christi, which lies just beyond the Nueces river, in the disputed 
territory. President Polk sent John Slidell as envoy to ne¬ 
gotiate with Mexico for a settlement of the dispute, but Mexico 
refused to recognize Slidell. Taylor then advanced to Point 
Isabel, at the mouth of the Rio Grande river. He built Fort 
Brown opposite Matamoras, and sent out a reconnoitering 
party under Captain Thornton, which was defeated and cap¬ 
tured by a force of Mexicans. 

When news of the capture of Thornton reached Washington, 
President Polk sent a message to Congress, saying, in part, that 
“Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has 
invaded our territory, and shed American blood on American 
soil.” “Since war exists by the act of Mexico herself,” he asked 
Congress “to recognize the existence of the war,” and to place 
at his disposal means for prosecuting the war with vigor, and 
thus hasten the restoration of peace.” On the 13th day of 
May, 1846, Congress passed such^an act, calling for men, not 
to exceed 50,000, and appropriating $10,000,000 for war pur¬ 
poses. 

From Palo Alto to-Buena Vista. Taylor’s army accord¬ 
ingly marched forward, met and defeated the Mexicans under 


Struggle for more Territory—Mexican War. 


309 



Study the movements of the armies as follows : 1. Taylor from New Orleans to Buena 
Vista; 2. Kearny from Ft. Leavenworth to California and Doniphan through Chihuahua; 
3. Scott from New Orleans to the city of Mexico. 

General Arista at Palo Alto (May 8, 1846), and the next day 
completely routed them at the battle of Resaca de la Palma. 
He followed them across the Rio Grande and occupied Mata- 
moras. After receiving reinforcements he pushed on to Mon¬ 
terey. Here the Mexicans had gathered a large force and 
.strongly fortified the city. But after three days of continuous 
fighting, General Arista surrendered the place (Sept. 24, 1846). 
An armistice was then agreed upon for eight weeks, and 9,000 
of Taylor’s troops were withdrawn, by order of General Scott, to 
aid him in a campaign against the City of Mexico. 

General Santa Anna, hearing this, marched north from San 
Luis Potosi with a newly organized army of 20,000 men, to 
destroy Taylor’s greatly diminished force, which was now 












310 History of the Xjnited States. 

eighteen miles below Saltillo. Taylor hastily fortified himself 
at Buena Vista, where, against great odds, with an army only 
one-fourth as great as Santa Anna’s, he defeated the Mexicans, 
February 23, 1847, and won the most brilliant victory of the 
war. Santa Anna went to aid in the defense of Vera Cruz. 
Taylor, now hailed as “Old Rough and Ready,” returned to the 
United States a military hero, and the next year was elected 
President. 

Conquest of New Mexico and California. Colonel Ste¬ 
phen W. Kearny set out from Fort Leavenworth, June, 1846, 
with an army, with instructions to seize New Mexico and Cali¬ 
fornia. He followed the old Santa Fe Trail, by Bent’s Fort, 
down to the town of Santa Fe, which he took without resist¬ 
ance. Declaring all New Mexico under the military rule of 
the United States, Kearny sent Colonel Doniphan with part 
of his army to the province of Chihuahua, Mexico, while he 
himself with the remaining troops made his way across the 
deserts and mountains to California. 

Captain J. C. Fremont, in charge of an exploring party in 
California, and Commodore Sloat, in command of our Pacific 
squadron, received word to look after American interests in 
case of trouble. The settlers, fearing an attack from the Mexi¬ 
cans, flocked to Fremont’s standard, and drove away the Mex¬ 
icans under General Castro. Sloat seized San Francisco and 
Monterey (California). In the mean time, Commodore Rob¬ 
ert F. Stockton arrived (July, 1846) by way of Cape Horn, and 
took command of all the American forces in California. Kearny, 
in November, 1846, completed his overland trip and joined 
Fremont and Stockton. After the decisive battle of San Gabriel 
(Jan. 8, 1847), the Mexicans made no further serious resist¬ 
ance, and the entire province of California came under the 
control of the United States.* 

Scott’s Campaign. While Taylor was closing his brilliant 
campaign at Buena Vista and California was being brought 

* The American settlers in California carried a flag upon which was painted the grizzly 
bear, and declared themselves independent of Mexico. The Republic until formally an¬ 
nexed to the United States was called the “Bear Flag Republic.” 


Struggle for more Territory—Mexican War. 311 

under the protection of the American flag, Winfield Scott, 
General-in-Chief, was on his way from New Orleans, by water, 
with an army to penetrate the heart of Mexico, capture the 
capital city, and dictate terms of peace. With a force of 12,- 
000 men he landed at Vera Cruz, and after a fierce bombard¬ 
ment received the surrender of the city, March 29, 1847. 
Flushed with victory, the American army set out for the an¬ 
cient capital of Mexico, over the same route which Cortez 
and his little band had taken more than three hundred years 
before. At Cerro Gordo* Scott defeated Santa Anna, then 
captured Jalapa, Puebla, and on the 10th of August came in 
sight of the strongly fortified City of Mexico. In rapid suc¬ 
cession, he assailed and defeated the Mexicans at Contreras 
.(kon-tra'-ras), Churubusco (chbo-rbb-bbbs'-kb), Molino del Rey 
(mb-le'-nd-del-ra'), and Chapultepec (cha-pobF-ta-pekO, and 
on the 14th of September made a triumphal entry into the city. 

Conclusions. The Mexicans were brave, and fought with 
desperate courage. They lacked discipline, equipment, and 
intelligence. Theirs was a fight for honor and principle, with 
certain defeat in the end, and they employed their meager 
means as best they could. 

The American plan was comprehensive, and carried out 
without the loss of a single battle. But the war was begun 
largely for the purpose of acquiring territory on which to extend 
slavery. For this reason, there was much opposition to the 
war in the North, especially among the Whigs and Free-Soilers. 
Yet the two commanders, Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott, 
were both Whigs. 

Probably no one now would wish to undo the results of the 
war. Motives which actuated it were followed by broader, 
better and more humane principles in governing the territory 
acquired, so that much good came out of seeming evil. 

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, and Results of the War. 

A large portion of Mexico was in possession of the United States. 

* In the battle of Cerro Gordo, Santa Anna lost 1,000 killed and wounded and 3,000 
prisoners. He made a narrow escape on a mule, leaving his private papers and his cork 
leg. 


312 


History of the United States. 


The Mexican government was helpless, and was forced to rely 
entirely upon the magnanimity of our government for terms 
of peace. A treaty was signed February 2, 1848, at Gaudalupe- 
Hidalgo, byUie peace commissioners. By this treaty— 

1. The Rio Grande river was made the southern boundary 
of the United States, and Mexico ceded to us California and all 
her territory* eastward to the Louisiana Purchase. (See map, 
p. 319.) 

2. The United States paid $15,000,000 to Mexico, and as¬ 
sumed the debt claimed by American citizens against Mexico, 
amounting to $3,250,000. 

The Wilmot Proviso, 1846. In August, 1846, the Pres¬ 
ident asked Congress for an appropriation of $2,000,000 “for 
the settlement of the boundary question with Mexico.” He 
expected to purchase the territory desired and to bring the 
war to a close. David Wilmot, a Democratic Congressman 
from Pennsylvania, offered an amendment prohibiting slavery 
in all territory to be acquired from Mexico. With the support 
of the Whigs and anti-slavery Democrats it passed the House, 
but was rejected by the Senate. The next year a bill appro¬ 
priating $3,000,000 for the same purpose was passed without 
the slavery provision. ' 

Election of 1848, and Formation of Free-Soil Party. 

The Whigs nominated a southern man and a slaveholder, 
Zachary Taylor, from Louisiana, for President. But the 
Democrats, who had started the Mexican War to get more 
slave territory, now nominated Lewis Cass, from the free state 
of Michigan. A large portion of the Whigs were opposed to 
slavery, yet they feared to take a direct stand against it. In 
their nominating convention (1848), both parties opposed all 
reference to slavery in their party platforms. 

* Extent of Territory. The new territory included the present states of California, 
Nevada and Utah; also all of New Mexico and Arizona excepting the Gadsden Purchase, the 
southwestern parts of Wyoming and Kansas, a large portion of Colorado, and the western 
part of Oklahoma (see map, p. 319), in addition to Texas. The territory ceded at the close 
of the war amounted to 526,000 square miles. The Republic of Texas included about 
390,000 square miles. The total area is over 900,000 square miles. This is more than 
thirteen times the size of New England and eleven times the size of Kansas, and larger 
then the present Republic of Mexico. 


Struggle for more Territory—Mexican War. 313 

This was distasteful to the anti-slavery element; so the 
anti-slavery Whigs and the anti-slavery Democrats combined 
with the Liberty party to form a new party called the Free- 
Soil party. Delegates met at Buffalo and nominated Martin 
Van Buren for President and Charles Francis Adams for Vice- 
President. In their platform they said: 1. They would not 
interfere with slavery where it already existed. 2. There must 
be “no more slave states and no more slave territory,” and 
“no more compromises with slavery.” 3. “We inscribe on our 
banner, ‘Free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men.’ ” 
The character of the contest became largely personal, in which 
Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista, proved the favorite. He was 
elected, and Millard Fillmore became Vice-President. 


Suggestions for Review. 

What claims had the United States on Texas? What settlements were 
made there by Americans? What caused a revolution in Texas? Give 
the result. What four nations at one time claimed the Oregon Country? 
Give an account of emigration from the East to Oregon. What prompted 
a strong effort to annex Texas? What attitude did the political parties 
take in 1844 on the annexation of territory? What definite things did 
Polk hope to accomplish? How was the Oregon boundary settled? Give 
an account of the annexation of Texas, and the result. Describe the terri¬ 
tory in dispute. What did Polk do to hold the disputed land? Give the 
plans of the war. What was the Army of Occupation? Tell of Taylor’s 
campaign; of Palo Alto, Monterey, and Buena Vista. Tell of Kearny’s 
campaign. Tell of the “Bear Flag Republic.” What treaty closed the 
war? Give its terms. What lands were gained by the United States? 
Was the war a just war? Why, or why not? What was the Wilmot Pro¬ 
viso? 

Tell something of Moses Austin, Stephen F. Austin, Sam Houston, Marcus 
Whitman, James G. Birney, Zachary Taylor, Winfield Scott, Santa Anna, 
Stephen W. Kearny, John C. Fremont, David Wilmot. 

Write an outline of the chapter. 


CHAPTER XXV. 


QUESTIONS ARISING OUT OF THE ANNEXATION 
OF TERRITORY. 

ADMINISTRATION OF ZACHARY TAYLOR AND 
MILLARD FILLMORE, 1849-1853. 

Problems of Congress. There were no laws governing 
the territory acquired as a result of the Mexican War, except 
as those of Mexico might be recog¬ 
nized or military rule enforced. It 
was important that Congress should 
act promptly. The views of the 
North and South had become so 
antagonistic on the slavery ques¬ 
tion that a long and bitter struggle 
ensued before any laws could be 
made for the teritory. Meanwhile 
the discovery of gold in California, 
an accidental event, completely up¬ 
set the calculations of the most saga¬ 
cious politicians by starting a great 
stream of free-state settlers to Cali- 

Zachary Taylor. - 

forma. 

Discovery of Gold, 1848. While John W. Marshall early 
in 1848 was digging a race-way for a new sawmill in the valley 
of the American river near the present site of Sacramento, 
for a Swiss settler named Sutter, he discovered a yellow, shin¬ 
ing substance in the sand. He took some of the glittering 
grains to Captain Sutter, who pronounced them gold. An effort 
was made to keep the discovery a secret, but the news leaked 
out, and spread with wonderful rapidity. A wild rush was 
made for the gold-fields. Men left the lumber camp, the flocks 

314 




315 


Mexican War Territory and Slavery . 

and herds, the stores and farms, and went to search for the 
precious metal. 

“Forty-Niners.” The news spread to the East. People 
left their homes by thousands. Men from all classes and 
professions joined in the rush for the gold-fields. Ships of 
every available sort were pressed into service, carrying passen¬ 
gers around South America. Some of the “argonauts” went 
by way of the Isthmus of Panama, while thousands journeyed 
in wagons over the Oregon and Santa Fe trails. Great wagon- 
trains, miles in length, wended their weary way over these 
long, difficult routes, exposed to great hardships, privations, 



and dangers. Hundreds of persons died on the way, but at 
least 80,000 reached California in a single year, and San Fran¬ 
cisco changed from a village to a city of 20,000. Food was 
scarce and prices became exorbitant. Disorder and crime were 
common, as there was no law save the rough code of the mining 
camp. “Vigilance committees” were formed, however, and 
by dealing promptly and summarily with criminals they did 
much to restore order and peace. 

Results. 1st. The discovery of gold led to the rapid settle¬ 
ment of the Pacific coast with a lot of energetic and hardy men. 
2nd. It put a vast amount of gold into circulation, * which stim- 

* The gold yield of the United States, largely from California, increased from $890,000 
in 1847 to $10,000,000 in 1848; to $40,000,000 in 1849; to $50,000,000 in 1850; to $55,- 
000,000 in 1851; to $60,0000,000 in 1852; to $65,000,000 in 1853. 

At first the gold was mostly taken from the beds of streams by sifting the sand from the 




316 


History of the United States. 


ulated trade, industry, and commerce. 3rd. The rapid settle¬ 
ment made a demand for speedy 
transportation between Califor¬ 
nia and the East, and twenty 
years later the Pacific Railroad 
was built. 4th. The settlers 
were mostly from the North, and 
within a year they formed a con¬ 
stitution, and asked admission to 
the Union as a free state. 

When Congress met, in Decem¬ 
ber, 1849, the question of providing a government for the terri¬ 
tory acquired from Mexico overshadowed all others. Cali¬ 
fornia wished to become a free state, and New Mexico inclined 
toward freedom. With the deepest chagrin the South saw the 
fruits of the Mexican conquest ripening for those who opposed 
the war rather than for those who incited it. The North wished 
to exclude slavery from the whole territory. Many in the 
South wished the entire territory left open to slavery, while 
others wished to extend the Missouri Compromise line of 1820 
(36° 30') to the Pacific. Sectional feeling ran high. The dis¬ 
cussions became violently bitter, and threatened to disrupt 
the Union. 

Great Debates in Congress. Henry Clay, the great peace¬ 
maker, now came forward with a compromise by offering a 
series of eight resolutions* in the Senate, January, 1850, cov¬ 
ering the various points of dispute between the North and South 
on the slavery question. A great debate followed. Webster, 
Clay, Calhoun and Seward were the leaders. 

Clay hoped that each section might be brought to yield part 
of its claims, in order that peace might be secured and the Union 

gold. When the surface-mining gave out, men cut down hills and turned strong streams 
of water on, washing the dirt and gravel away while the heavier gold collected in pockets. 
Most of the gold mined in California now is obtained by crushing quartz rock and then 
separating the gold from it by a chemical process. 

* The resolutions were referred to a committee of thirteen, of which Clay was chair¬ 
man. They reported to the Senate practically what Clay had recommended in his resolu¬ 
tions. The different items were taken up and passed by Congress in three different bills. 
These constituted the Compromise of 1850. 



Sifting for Goi.d. 


Disputes About Slavery. 



Mexican War Territory and Slavery. 317 

preserved. For two days he addressed the Senate, saying in 
part: “Let me say to the North and to the South what hus¬ 
band and wife say to each other: ‘We have mutual faults; 
neither of us is perfect; nothing in the form of humanity is 
perfect. Let us be kind to each other, forbearing, forgiving 
each other’s faults, and, above all, let us live in happiness and 
peace together.’ ” With great persuasion and eloquence he 
pleaded for the compromise and the preservation of the Union. 



Three Great Orators and Party Leaders. 

John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, and Henry Clay. 

Webster, in one of the greatest speeches of his life, supported 
Clay. He spoke for the “Union and the Constitution.” In 
his efforts to pacify the South, he asked the North to stop the 
slavery agitation and make a better law for the return of fugi¬ 
tive slaves. This “7th of March Speech” was very offensive 
to the free states. 

Calhoun* opposed the Compromise and made a strong plea 
for the South and slavery. He and his followers made open 
and positive threats that the South would leave the Union 
unless they were given: (1st) At least an equal division of the 
new territory for slavery; (2nd) Better laws for the return of 

* Both Clay and Calhoun were old and feeble, actually battling with death. Clay 
was too feeble to walk up the capitol steps alone, and Calhoun too weak to deliver his own 
speech. A fellow-senator read it for him. 









318 


History of the United States. 


fugitive slaves; (3rd) Assurance that the anti-slavery agi¬ 

tation would be stopped. 

Seward opposed all compromise and all slavery extension. 

He favored the admission of California 
as a free state, as the President did, 
without attaching other slave mat¬ 
ters to the act. He asserted that not 
only the Constitution but a “ higher 
law” (the moral law), made the terri¬ 
tories free. In the midst of the tur¬ 
moil Taylor died, July 9, 1850, and 
Millard Fillmore became President. 
In September Clay’s measures, called 
the Compromise of 1850, or the Omni¬ 
bus Bill, were enacted into law. 

The Compromise of 1850 included several important mat¬ 
ters : 

1. California was admitted as a free state. 

2. Utah and New Mexico were organized as territories, and 
the states later to be formed out of them were to be free or slave 
as the inhabitants in each territory should decide. 

3. The slave trade (not slavery) was forever prohibited in the 
District of Columbia. 

4. A more stringent fugitive slave law was passed for cap¬ 
turing and returning runaway slaves. 

5. Texas was to be paid $10,000,000 for her claims on New 
Mexico. 

6. Not more than four new states might be formed out of 
Texas. 



Millard Fillmore. 


The Fugitive Slave Law and the Personal Liberty Laws. 

Everyone hoped that peace and harmony would again be re¬ 
stored between the North and South, but the relief was only 
temporary. The Fugitive Slave Law gave officers the right 
to take any negro, and return him to the person who claimed 
him as an escaped slave, without allowing him to testify in his 
own behalf. The law also made it the duty of citizens to assist 
in the capture and return of runaway slaves. Many people 


Mexican War Territory and Slavery. 


319 



A map showing California, Utah, New Mexico, Texas after the year 1850, and the terri¬ 
tory sold by Texas to the Government. Utah Territory extended from California to the 
mountain-crest between parallels 37 and 42. The Territory of New Mexico extended 
from California to Texas, south of Utah, and a section of the 38th parallel. 

in the North refused to obey the law. Most of the northern 
state legislatures passed Personal Liberty Laws , which were 
intended to prevent free negroes from being carried away into 
slavery on the claim that they were fugitive slaves. These 
laws required the negro should be given a fair trial by jury. 

Underground Railroads. Many of the slaves tried to 
gain freedom by escaping from their masters to Canada or to 
some safe place in the North. If the master, who usually 
put “slave-hunters” on the trail, could find the slave any¬ 
where in the North, he could by law have him seized and re¬ 
turned; but in Canada he was free. Many people opposed 
to slavery secretly aided in the escape of slaves. There were 
regular routes leading through the North. Trusted persons 
would conceal the slave until he could be taken out or sent 
to the next party on the route, who would in turn care for him 
until he could with safety be sent to the next station. There 










320 


History of the United States. 


were a number of these routes, which were called the “ Under¬ 
ground Railroad,” as the plan of conducting the slaves to free¬ 
dom was usually carried on by night. Thousands of slaves 
secured their liberty in this way. The members of the Under¬ 
ground Railroad system believed in the Higher Law,—the 
Divine law of justice and freedom, and chose to assist in the 
escape of the slave rather than to aid in his capture. 

Deaths: Calhoun, Clay, and Webster. Three of the 
great men of this period died during Fillmore’s administration: 
John C. Calhoun, March 31, 1850; Henry Clay, June 29, 1852; 
and Daniel Webster, October 24, 1852. They were statesmen 
and great orators, and impressed themselves upon the life of 
the nation. Calhoun was the great leader for state rights, 
nullification, and slavery. Clay was the great peacemaker, 
ever pleading for harmony between the North and South, and 
Webster was the great expounder of the Constitution. No 
greater oratory has ever been heard in the halls of Congress 
than fell from the lips of these men. Calhoun, Clay and Web¬ 
ster aspired to be President, and were bitterly disappointed 
because they failed in this ambition. 

Election of 1852. The Democratic party nominated Frank¬ 
lin Pierce of New Hampshire and William R. King of Alabama, 
and indorsed the Compromise of 1850. The Whigs were some¬ 
what divided as to candidates and party principles, but finally 
indorsed the Compromise of 1850 and nominated Winfield 
Scott, of Virginia, hoping that his war^ record would help to 
secure his election. Leaders in both parties wished to keep 
down further slavery agitation. The Free-Soil party de¬ 
nounced the Compromise of 1850, called slavery “a sin against 
God, a crime against man,” and declared for “free soil, free 
speech, free labor, and free men.” Pierce carried twenty-seven 
out of thirty-one states, and became President.* William R. 
King became Vice-President, but died about a month after his 
inauguration. 

Gadsden Purchase, 1853. Not long after the treaty of 
peace was concluded, trouble again occurred with Mexico over 


* Scott carried Massachusetts, Vermont, Tennessee, and Kentucky. 


321 


Mexican War Territory and Slavery . 

the location of the boundary line between Mexico and the 
United States in the region of the Gila river. The United 
States was especially anxious to secure this territory, as it 
offered the most available route to the Pacific for a proposed 
railroad. Through the efforts of James Gadsden, our minister 
to Mexico, a treaty was made with that country by which the 
United States paid Mexico $10,000,000 for the territory* which 
lies between the Gila river and the present boundary of Mex¬ 
ico. 

* The Gadsden Purchase included 47,330 acres, an area equal to that of the state of 
New York. 


Suggestions for Review. 

As a result of the Mexican War, what problems confronted Congress? 
Tell of the discovery of gold in California, and give the results. Who were 
the “Forty-niners”? Why did the discussions on the slavery question 
become so prominent at this time? What were the different views relative 
to slavery in the^ new territory? What was the Compromise of 1850? 
Give its provisions. What was the “Underground Railroad”? Who were 
the members of the Underground system? What three statesmen were 
prominent at this time, and what was the attitude of each on the slavery 
question? Why did none become President? Tell of the Gadsden Pur¬ 
chase. 

Write an outline of the chapter. What dates and what facts should be 
remembered? Write the names of six men named in the chapter, and tell 
something of each. Color a map showing Texas, Utah, New Mexico, and 
California. 


CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE APPROACHING CRISIS. 

PERIOD OF POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY. 
ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE, 1853-1857. 

Our First World’s Fair. In 1853 a World’s Fair was held 
in New York, at which exhibits of the products, inventions and 


industries from all of the civilized 
countries in the world were placed 
in a beautiful and spacious building 
called the “Crystal Palace.” This 
was the first of a series of great 
World’s Fairs held in this country, 
which have shown the progress in 
the industries, sciences, and arts. 



Commodore Perry Opens the 
Ports of Japan, 1852-1854. Japan 
had for centuries been closed to the 
commerce of civilized nations ex¬ 
cept the Dutch. The settlement of 
California and Oregon made it de- 


Fbanklin Pierce. 


sirable to extend our commerce with Asia and to establish a 
coaling station on the Japan islands, as well as to secure com¬ 
mercial privileges with that country. With these ends in view, 
Commodore M. C. Perry, a brother of Oliver H. Perry, set sail 
in 1852 with a fleet of war-vessels. His arrival in Yeddo Bay, 
Japan, threw the Japanese into a panic. Fearing a foreign 
invasion, they warned him not to come any nearer, but Perry 
' succeeded in convincing them that he had come on a mission of 
peace and good-will, and not for war or conquest. In the spring 
of 1854, a treaty of friendship and commerce was made. Our 
trade and friendly intercourse have not been interrupted since 


The Approaching Crisis. 


323 


while Japan has surprised the world by the eagerness with which 
she has adopted the ways and customs of the Western Hemi¬ 
sphere. 

The Martin Koszta Affair, 1854. Martin Koszta was a 
leader in the Hungarian revolt against Austria, 1849. The revolt 
failing, he came to the United States, and-took out the first papers 
to become a citizen. Then he returned to Europe, and, being seized, 
claimed protection as a citizen of the United States, under whose 
passport he was traveling. Our country supported his claim, but 
after securing his release, adopted the policy of giving passports 
to none but native-born or fully naturalized citizens. This 
affair is of importance because it led to a better understanding as 
to a nation’s rights and duties in relation to visiting foreigners. 

Filibustering Expeditions, 1850-1860. Meanwhile the 
question of slavery continued to be a disturbing factor in 
national affairs. Several venturesome characters, heeding the 
demands of the South for more slave territory, organized bands 
of men to invade Mexico, Central America and Cuba for the 
purpose of conquest. 

One of these, William Walker, made three different attempts 
of this character: the first in Mexico, where he was defeated; 
the second, from New Orleans to Nicaragua, where he met with 
temporary success; but in the third expedition he was court- 
martialed and shot by the government of Honduras (1860). 

General Lopez, a member of the Cuban revolutionary party, 
came to the United States and organized bands of men to assist 
in the overthrow of Spanish rule in Cuba. His first attempt 
was foiled by President Taylor. Later he eluded the govern¬ 
ment, and led several hundred men, mostly Americans, to Cuba, 
where he was defeated by the Spanish authorities, and he and a 
number of his followers were shot. All protection of our govern¬ 
ment is denied to American citizens who with warlike intent in¬ 
vade the territory of another nation; but when a law-abiding 
citizen is denied any right, the government with its power 
comes to his rescue. 

Ostend Manifesto, 1854. Many political leaders in the 
South desired to annex Cuba in order that another slave state 


324 


History of the United States. 


might be formed. Efforts were made to purchase the island, 
but without success. Polk, in 1848, thought of offering $100,- 
000,000 for it. Later, President Pierce directed Mr. Soule, our 
minister to Spain, to try to secure Cuba, but he failed to cajole 
the Spanish government into parting with it. In 1854 our 
ministers to Spain, France and England met at Ostend, Belgium, 
and issued what is known as the “Ostend Manifesto.” They 
declared that Cuba ought to belong to the United States, and 
if Spain refused to sell it, the United States would, “by every 
law, human and divine, be justified in taking it by force.” 
This attempt to rob Spain of the island created such a storm of 
opposition in Europe and the United States that no effort was 
made to carry out the manifesto. 

“Uncle Tom’s Cabin.” Opposition to slavery was greatly 
intensified by the publication of “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” (1852), 
written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, sister 
of Henry Ward Beecher, the great 
preacher. It was a book of fiction, but 
portrayed the character and condition of 
the slaves so vividly that the people in 
the North accepted it as true to fact. 
“Topsy,” “Eva,” and “Uncle Tom” be¬ 
came real characters. The book appealed 
to the sympathy, stirred the imagination, 
and had a great effect in creating senti¬ 
ment against slavery. Within a year 
more than 500,000 copies were sold. The 
pro-slavery people denounced the book, and in some places in 
the South prohibited its sale. William Lloyd Garrison wrote 
to Mrs. Stowe : “All defenders of slavery have let me alone and 
are abusing you.” 

“The Impending Crisis.” In the South there were a 
great many “poor whites,” who had no slaves and no interest 
in slavery. One of their number, Hinton R. Helper, of North 
Carolina, published a book called “The Impending Crisis,” in 
which he showed the great economic burden slavery imposed 
on the South. He bitterly assailed the slaveholding aristocracy, 



Harriet Beecher Stowe. 



The Approaching Crisis. 


325 


and pleaded for the interests of the “poor whites,” who had 
little hope for advancement while they were forced to put their 
labor in competition with that of slaves. “The Impending 
Crisis,” like “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” had a great effect on the 
slavery agitation. Had the “poor whites” understood this 
book and the real nature of the war, it is probable that few of 
their number wQuld have fought for slavery. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854. While the filibusters 
and the authors of the Ostend Manifesto were trying to seize 



The Territory of Kansas was bounded on the north by the 40th parallel or Nebraska; 
on the east by Missouri; on the south by the 37th parallel to the 103d meridian; thence 
north to the 38th parallel; thence west to the crest of the mountains; on the west by the 
crest of the mountains. 

Nebraska Territory included the land between Kansas and the 49th parallel, extending 
from the Missouri river to the mountain-crest. 

slave territory in southern lands, efforts were being made to 
extend slavery into the North. 

















326 


History of the United States. 


In 1854 Stephen A. Douglas, Democratic senator from Illinois, 
introduced a bill into the United States Senate which provided 
for the organization of two territories, one Kansas and the 
other Nebraska, in which the residents of each territory should 
decide whether the state or states to be formed out of that 
territory should be free or slave. This was called the doctrine 
of “Popular Sovereignty” or “Squatter Sovereignty,”* first 
introduced by the Compromise of 1850 in the territorial acts 
of Utah and New Mexico. The Kansas-Nebraska Act was 
passed May 30, 1854. It repealed the Missouri Compromise 
and threw open to slavery a vast region from which, by the 
terms of the Missouri Compromise, slavery had been “forever 
prohibited.” This renewed the slavery agitation between the 
North and the South in a most violent form. Many who hither¬ 
to had looked with indifference on the existence of slavery in 
the South became deeply concerned when they saw that de¬ 
termined efforts were being made to push this evil into the 
North. Pulpit, press and platform became more active than 
ever before. 

Struggle in Kansas. Adjoining the slave state of Missouri, 
Kansas was more susceptible to the influence and control of the 
slave-owners of the South than was the more northern territory 
of Nebraska. The Abolitionists and Free-Soilers of the North 
made strenuous efforts to overcome this, by aiding in every 
way the settlement of Kansas by men of their belief. Thus 
Kansas became the battle-ground between the forces of free¬ 
dom and slavery. Emigrants flocked in from the North to 
make Kansas a free state, and men came from the South to 
make it slave. The pro-slavery men of Missouri founded the 
towns of Leavenworth, Atchison, and Lecompton. Many of 
them, retaining their homes in Missouri, would cross and recross 
the border line, bringing with them hordes of adventurers to 
aid in the voting and fighting. In the territorial election in 
the spring of 1855, over 6,000 votes were counted, nearly 5,000 
of which were illegal, being cast for slavery by non-residents of 

* “Squatter” was the name given to a person who first settled on government land. 
Sovereignty means supreme, self-ruling. Squatter Sovereignty meant that the settlers 
should determine the slavery question for themselves. 








































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The Approaching Crisis. 


327 


the territory. These fraudulent votes elected a delegate to Con¬ 
gress, and members of the legislature, which met first at Pawnee, 
in Davis county (now Geary), then at Shawnee Mission, John¬ 
son county, three miles from Westport, Missouri. This “bogus” 
legislature adopted in the main the laws of Missouri, but pro¬ 
vided the death penalty for nearly fifty offenses against slavery. 

Lecompton was made the capital. Andrew J. Reeder was 
appointed the first territorial governor by President Pierce, but 
as Reeder did not indorse the high-handed methods of the pro¬ 
slavery leaders, he was removed and Wilson Shannon was ap¬ 
pointed in his place. 

Emigrant Aid Society. It indeed looked gloomy for the 
free-soil people. But the Emigrant Aid Society, organized 
by Eli Thayer, of Massachusetts, had been piloting anti¬ 
slavery settlers to the territory. These settlers founded Law¬ 
rence, Topeka, and Osawatomie. Other societies were formed 
to aid in the work, and soon a stream of free-soil immigrants 
was pouring into Kansas. When the Missourians blockaded 
the way through their state, a route through Iowa and Nebraska 
was chosen. 

The Topeka Constitution. The anti-slavery people met 
at Topeka, October, 1855, and formed a free-state constitution, 
elected state officers, and applied to Congress for admission to 
the Union as a free state. 

Rival Governments and Civil War in Kansas. Thus 
there were two rival governments in the territory. Congress 
had to approve the constitution before the territory could be¬ 
come a state.* In the House a majority favored the Topeka 

* While the Kansas question was under discussion in the United States Senate Charles. 
Sumner made a speech, May 22, 1856, on the “Crime against Kansas.” In the heat of 
debate he severely denounced slavery and slaveholders. He spoke with special severity 
of Senator Butler, of South Carolina. Two days later, after the Senate had adjourned, 
and while" Sumner was sitting at his desk at work, Representative Preston S. Brooks, of 
South Carolina, a relative of Butler, beat Sumner over the head with a heavy cane until 
he was unconscious. Sumner never fully recovered from this assault, and did not return 
to active life for several years. Massachusetts kept his seat vacant, however, until he was 
able to occupy it again. Brooks, and Lawrence M. Keith who accompanied him, should 
have been expelled from the House, but only a vote of censure was passed upon them. 
They resigned, however, and at once were reelected by the state of South Carolina. The 
brutal assault made the North indignant and more determined, while the pro-slavery 
politicians professed to believe that Sumner received his just deserts. 


328 


History of the United States . 


constitution, but a majority in the Senate opposed it. Pres¬ 
ident Pierce assisted the pro-slavery leaders in every way possi¬ 
ble, and with his approval troops were sent to disperse the To¬ 
peka legislature. 

Wild scenes of disorder were enacted in the territory. Men 
were shot, houses burned, and property destroyed. A pro¬ 
slavery party plundered and burned Osawatomie; a large 
party of Missourians sacked Lawrence, and burned part of 
the town. Free-state people retaliated under the leadership 
of such men as John Brown and Captain Harvey. Murder 
and bloodshed were so common that “Bleeding Kansas” be¬ 
came a common name for the territory. 

On September 9, 1856, John W. Geary, who was fair-minded 
and capable, became Governor, intending to deal justly with 
both Anti-Slavery and Pro-Slavery parties. By energetic 
action he dispersed the armed bands in the territory and es¬ 
tablished a season of peace, which was soon dispelled by the 
violent action of the Pro-Slavery legislature which met at 
Lecompton. Its members began a bitter quarrel with Geary, 
and compelled him to seek safety by leaving the territory. 

The Lecompton Constitution. The pro-slavery conven¬ 
tion met at Lecompton in the fall of 1857, and made a constitu¬ 
tion favoring slavery.* This was rejected by the people at 
the polls by a decisive majority. 

The Leavenworth Constitution. While the Lecompton 
convention was in session, the election for members of the ter¬ 
ritorial legislature was held. It resulted in a victory for the 
free-state people. A convention was called which framed the 
Leavenworth constitution, prohibiting slavery. The Attorney- 
General of the United States declared the resolution calling 
the convention void. Thus, the third attempt to form a state 
constitution failed. 

* The constitution when first submitted to the people provided that the vote should 
be taken on the “constitution with slavery” or on the “constitution without slavery,” 
no vote being allowed against the constitution. The anti-slavery people would not vote 
on the question when stated in this way; so the constitution was adopted by the pro¬ 
slavery vote. When the anti-slavery legislature met it presented the question in this way: 
Will you or will you not have this constitution with slavery? The free-state people then 
voted, and rejected the Lecompton constitution. 


The Approaching Crisis, 


329 


The Wyandotte Constitution Adopted. In 1859 the 
people voted to call a new constitutional convention, which 
met at Wyandotte (now Kansas City, Kansas), July 5, 1859. 
It was composed of thirty-five Republicans and seventeen 
Democrats. A constitution prohibiting slavery was adopted 
and approved by the people by a large majority. 

The Senate, still under the influence of the slave power, 
would not ratify the Wyandotte constitution. But on January 
21, 1861, Jefferson Davis and other southern senators, by with¬ 
drawing from the Senate, left a Republican majority. The 
same day, on motion of William H. Seward, the Senate passed 
the bill for ratification; on the 29th, the President signed it 
and Kansas became a free state. 

Squatter Sovereignty proved a costly experiment, for many 
hardships were endured, two million dollars’ worth of property 
was destroyed, and several hundred lives sacrificed; but it all 
ended at last in the interest of freedom. 

Organization of New Parties, and Election of 1856. 
The Republican. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act 
and the trend of the slavery question led to the reconstruction 
of political parties. All persons opposed to the extension of 
slavery united to form a new national party (1856) called the 
Republican party. It brought under its banner the anti¬ 
slavery Whigs, anti-slavery Democrats, and members of the 
Free-Soil party. The Republicans nominated John C. Fre¬ 
mont of California and William L. Dayton of New Jersey as 
standard-bearers, on a platform which favored the immediate 
admission of Kansas as a free state, and measures to prohibit 
in the territories “those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and 
slavery.” 

The Democrats named James Buchanan of Pennsylvania 
and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, and indorsed the Kan¬ 
sas-Nebraska Act and policy of “Non-interference by Congress 
with slavery in state or territory.” 

Know-Nothing. Another new party, called the American 
or “Know-Nothing” party, was formed, and held its first 
national convention in 1856. It tried to draw the attention 


330 


History of the United States. 


of the people away from the violent slavery agitation by point¬ 
ing out the dangers of the foreign element in American politics. 
Advocating the policy of “ America for Americans,” it wished 
all offices to be filled by native-born Americans. Millard Fill¬ 
more was nominated for President. The remnant of the Whig 
party also nominated Fillmore. 

In the election which followed, Buchanan received 174 elec¬ 
toral votes, Fremont 114, and Fillmore 8. 


' Suggestions for Review. 

Tell of the treaty with Japan. What is a filibustering 'expedition? 
Who was General Lopez? What was the Ostend Manifesto? Tell of 
the publication of “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” and “The Impending Crisis.” 
What was the Kansas-Nebraska Act? What is “Squatter Sovereignty”? 
Tell of the struggle in Kansas. How many constitutions were made for 
Kansas? Which one was accepted? What gave rise to the Republican 
Party? Whom did they nominate for President? 

Tell something of Commodore M. C. Perry, Harriet Beecher Stowe, 
Hinton R. Helper, Stephen A. Douglas, Eli Thayer, J. C. Fremont; 1854. 
Study the maps. 


CHAPTER XXVII. 

THE APPROACHING CRISIS. 

DRED SCOTT DECISION, PERSONAL-LIBERTY LAWS, AND 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN, 1857-1861. 

The Dred Scott Decision, 1857. Two days after the in¬ 
auguration of Buchanan, the Supreme Court of the United 
States announced the celebrated 
Scott decision. Dred Scott, a negro 
slave in Missouri, was taken by his 
master into the free state of Illinois, 
1834, and two years later to the free 
territory, now the state of Min¬ 
nesota. Scott married, and with his 
family was later brought back to 
Missouri by his owner and sold to 
another master. Here he brought 
suit for the freedom of himself and 
family on the ground that his re¬ 
moval from a slave state to a free 
state or territory made him free. 
The case became a noted one, able lawyers representing both 
sides. Anti-slavery people favored Scott’s cause, and pro- 
slavery people opposed it. The District Court of St. Louis 
declared in favor of Scott, and his owner appealed the case to 
the State Supreme Court, which, in 1852, reversed the lower 
court. Scott in turn appealed to the United States Circuit 
Court and then to the United States Supreme Court, which 
in 1857 decided in substance: 

1. That Dred Scott was not a citizen, and therefore could 
not sue or be sued in the courts of tbe United States. 

2. That a slave was chattel property and could be taken into 

331 



James Buchanan. 



332 


History of the United States. 


any state or territory by his master, the same as a horse or any 
movable property. 

3. That the Missouri Compromise, which excluded slavery 
from the Louisiana territory north of 36° 30', was unconstitu¬ 
tional ; therefore, null and void. 

This decision filled the southern people with joy but incensed 
and enraged those in the North. It virtually meant that all 
anti-slavery law’s were null and void and that slavery could 
exist anywhere in the United States. While it was a temporary 
victory for the South, it in the end became an advantage to 
the North, for it increased and united anti-slavery sentiment. 
More personal-liberty laws were passed, travel by the “ under¬ 
ground railroad” was facilitated, and in other ways the people 
became more aggressive in opposing slavery. Questions con¬ 
cerning the extension of slavery were taken into the contest for 
the choice of a United States senator in Illinois in 1858. 

Lincoln-Douglas Debates.* Stephen A. Douglas was the 
Democratic candidate for reelection, and Abraham Lincoln 
became the Republican candidate against him. In accepting 
the nomination at Springfield Lincoln said: “ A house divided 
against itself cannot stand. I believe that this government 
cannot endure permanently half slave and half free; I do not 
expect the Union to be dissolved; I do not expect the house 
to fall; but I do expect it will cease 
to be divided.” Since the members of 
the state legislatures choose the United 
States senators, Lincoln and Douglas 
each tried to have a majority from his 
party elected. They began making 
speeches at different places. Lincoln 
then challenged Douglas to a series of 
joint debates (between August 21 and 
September 15), and he accepted. Doug¬ 
las, short and squarely built, was a 
rapid, eloquent and magnetic speaker, and the leader of his 

* There were seven joint debates : At Ottawa, Freeport, Jonesboro, Charleston, Gales¬ 
burg, Quincy, and Alton. Fifty-four legislators voted for Douglas and forty-six for Lincoln, 
but 4,000 more votes were cast at the polls for Lincoln men than for Douglas men. 



Stephen A. Douglas. 


The Approaching Crisis. 


333 


party in the United States Senate. Lincoln, tall, slender and 
awkward, spoke slowly but logically and effectively. He had 
gained some prominence in his state, but was scarcely known in 
national affairs. In the debates which followed, Lincoln op¬ 
posed'the extension of slavery, while Douglas spoke in favor of 
“squatter sovereignty.’’ Douglas was elected senator; but 
Lincoln proved his superior in debate, and showed himself a 
man of such keen foresight and great ability that the Repub¬ 
licans made him their next presidential candidate; while Doug¬ 
las in answering a series of leading questions propounded by 
Lincoln, gave expression to opinions on the slavery question 
which, from a southern standpoint, made him an impossible 
candidate for President. 

John Brown’s Raid, 1859. A year after the Lincoln- 
Douglas debates the nation was startled by the news that John 
Brown at the head of a band of men had made a raid in Vir¬ 
ginia with the avowed purpose of striking a blow which would 
lead to the freedom of the slaves. Brown was one of the most 
active and fearless characters in the Kansas struggle for free¬ 
dom. After the adoption of the Wyandotte constitution for 
the formation of a free state, he set out to strike a greater blow 
for freedom. Renting a farmhouse near Harper’s Ferry, Vir¬ 
ginia, 1859, he began secretly to collect arms, ammunition and 
men, expecting to seize the United States arsenal at Harper’s 
Ferry, arm the slaves, and start a slave revolt which would re¬ 
sult in giving freedom to the black race. 

With nineteen followers, Sunday night, October 16, 1859, he 
seized the national arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, arrested a num¬ 
ber of slave-owners, confined them in the guard-house, and de¬ 
clared their slaves free. News of the capture of the arsenal 
startled the country. The South was thrown into a frenzy of 
excitement and claimed that the anti-slave leaders in the North 
had planned the raid, but the facts show that no one but 
Brown was directly responsible. Many in the North said, how¬ 
ever, that it was a natural outgrowth of the squatter sover¬ 
eignty policy and the Dred Scott decision. State militia and 
United States marines were hurried to the scene to suppress the 


334 


History of the United States. 


revolt. An assault was made on the arsenal, and the doors 
were battered down. Ten of the nineteen raiders, including two 
of Brown’s sons, were killed, seven were taken prisoners, and 
two escaped.* Brown and his six followers were tried by the 
Virginia courts, convicted of treason f against the state, and on 
December 2nd were hanged. 

The Panic of 1857. While the people were wrought up 
and disturbed on the slavery question, a financial panic fell 
upon the nation in 1857. Banks were forced to close their 
doors. Merchants and manufacturers failed by thousands, 
men were thrown out of employment, and families suffered for 
the necessaries of life. 

The great amount of gold from California, put into circula¬ 
tion in the early fifties, had stimulated men to overdo all kinds 
of business. Railroads were built beyond the needs of the 
country, and merchants were overstocked with goods. The 
supply was greater than the demand. Many industries had to 
retrench or suspend business, and the result was hard times and 
a financial panic. These financial troubles seem to come at 
intervals of about fifteen or twenty years, perhaps because each 
new generation has to learn the lesson of over-speculation for 
itself. 

Presidential Election, 1860. Wider and wider grew the 
breach between the North and South. The struggle in Kan¬ 
sas, the Dred Scott decision, and John Brown’s raid, each had a 
great effect on the minds of the people, and led to many changes 
in the election of 1860. Four parties nominated candidates for 
the presidency: the Republican, the Northern Democratic, 
the Southern Democratic, and the Constitutional Union. The 
northern' and southern Democrats could not agree on the 
slavery question or on a candidate, so they split, and each 
branch made its own platform and nominated its own candidate. 

The southern wing of the Democratic party nominated John 
C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, approved the Dred Scott de- 

* While Brown’s whole force numbered twenty-one, only nineteen helped seize the 
arsenal. 

t Can the crime of treason be committed against a state? 


The Approaching Crisis. 


335 


cision, favored the extension of slavery, and declared for the 
annexation of Cuba. 

The northern Democrats nominated Stephen A. Douglas, 
favored the fugitive slave law, the annexation of Cuba, and 
squatter sovereignty as expressed in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 

A new party, called the Constitutional Union party, nom¬ 
inated John Bell, and avoided the slavery question, which was 
the great issue before the people, by declaring for “the Constitu¬ 
tion, the Union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws.” 

The Republicans opposed the extension of slavery, favored 
the immediate admission of Kansas as a free state, and declared 
that the “Federal Constitution and the rights of the states must 
and shall be preserved.” They nominated Abraham Lincoln 
of Illinois for President and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine for 
Vice-President. The Republicans were therefore positively 
opposed to the further extension of slavery; the southern 
Democrats were just as firmly in favor of extending slavery 
everywhere; the northern Democrats wished to leave the 
settlement of the slavery question entirely to each individual 
territory; while the Constitutional Union party hoped to 
catch the popular vote by steering clear of the subject which 
had made so much trouble. 

Bell carried Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Douglas 
carried only Missouri and three votes in New Jersey. Breckin¬ 
ridge carried all other states south of the Ohio river and the 
Mason and Dixon line, and Lincoln carried California and all 
north of this line excepting three New Jersey votes, receiving 
180 out of 303 of the electoral votes. 

Fears of the South. The balance between the free and 
slave states was now clearly turned in favor of the former. 
With the admission of Kansas there would be nineteen free and 
only fifteen slave states. This gave to the North eight more 
Senators and sixty more Representatives in Congress than to 
the South, besides a large territory from which slavery would be 
excluded by the policy of the Republican party. Republicans 
had no intention of abolishing slavery where it already existed; 


336 


History of the United States. 


but the southern leaders believed that the time was not far 
distant when an effort would be made to free the slaves. They 
bitterly complained of the Personal Liberty Laws, the Under¬ 
ground Railroad, and the John Brown Raid. They said that 
the policy of the Republican party would rob the South of the 
fruits of the Dred Scott decision. Many times before, the 
southern leaders had threatened to leave the Union, but now, 
after the election of Lincoln, they began to make definite plans 
for a separate government. 

Attempts at Compromise. Friends of the Union again 
came forward with compromises to patch up the differences 
between the North and the South. Many plans were proposed, 
but the one receiving most serious consideration was that of 
Senator John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky, to amend the Con¬ 
stitution in the following particulars: 1. That all territory 
north of 36° 30' should be free and all south of it should be 
slave. 2. That Congress should have no power to interfere 
with slavery in any state or territory south of that line. 3. 
That new states should be free or slave as the people within 
them should decide. And that the United States should pay 
owners for fugitive slaves. 

Peace Conference. Virginia came forward in an effort 
to save the Union. The legislature called a peace conference 
at Washington (February, 1861), asking each state to send 
delegates to effect a compromise. Not one of the six cotton 
states which had already seceded sent delegates. A compromise 
similar to the Crittenden Compromise was adopted by the con¬ 
vention but rejected by Congress. 

Secession. On December 20, 1860, a convention of dele¬ 
gates called by the legislature of South Carolina passed an 
ordinance of secession. By February 1,1860, Alabama, Florida, 
Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas had followed her 
example. The senators and representatives of these states 
resigned from Congress and hastened south to aid the seceded 
states in forming a new government. 

On March 4, 1861, delegates from all the seceded states ex- 


The Approaching Crisis. 


337 


cept Texas met at Montgomery, Alabama, formed a constitu¬ 
tion, and established a government called the Confederate 
States of America. Jefferson Davis, 
of Mississippi, was elected provi¬ 
sional President, and Alexander H. 

Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent. The constitution authorized 
slavery and allowed greater rights 
to the states than did the Federal 
Constitution. After Virginia se¬ 
ceded, the Confederate capital was 
moved from Montgomery to Rich¬ 
mond, only one hundred and twenty- 
five miles from Washington. 

Buchanan’s Policy. President Buchanan did practically 
nothing to stop secession. In his message to Congress he said- 
that no state had a constitutional right to secede, but that there 
was no law by which he could compel a state to remain in the 
Union. From beginning to end there was nothing in his message 
to give hope to the North, and no note of warning to cause the 
South to falter or hesitate. Compromise and appeal to reason 
had failed. The only chance left to save the Union was to make 
use of the army and navy as Jackson had done in the early 
days when South Carolina threatened to secede. But Bu¬ 
chanan doubted, faltered, and allowed the secessionists to go on 
with their plans of organizing a Confederate government and 
of seizing the property and forts of the United States in the 
South. Buchanan’s cabinet went to pieces. Three withdrew 
to join the Confederacy, and Cass resigned because Buchanan 
did not act with decision in protecting the government. Union 
men were appointed to fill the vacancies, but nothing effective 
was done to check the movements of secession. 

Government Property Seized. The ‘ ‘ Star of the West. ’ ’ 
Southern officers resigned from the army and navy to cast their 
fortunes with the seceded states. The Confederates seized 
forts, arsenals, custom-houses and postoffices and other national 



Jefferson Davis. 


338 


History of the United States. 



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The Approaching Crisis. 


339 


property in the South. Fort Sumter at the entrance to Charles¬ 
ton Harbor, Fortress Monroe on Chesapeake Bay, Fort Pickens 
at Pensacola, and the defenses at Key West, yet remained in the 
national possession. Early in January Buchanan sent supplies 
to Major Anderson at Fort Sumter, in a merchant steamer, the 
Star of the West, but the Confederate batteries at Charleston 
fired upon the steamer and drove her away. 

Thus it was that Buchanan’s administration drew to a close 
amidst gloom bordering upon despair, with terrible rumblings 
of a great civil war already heard. A conflict destined to darken 
the land and drench it with fraternal blood was at hand. 


4» 

Suggestions for Review. 

Tell of the Dred Scott Decision. Who was Dred Scott? What was 
the effect of this decision? Tell of the Lincoln-Douglas debates. What 
questions were debated? What was the result of the election? Tell of 
John Brown’s Raid. What became of Brown? What caused the Panic 
of 1857? What four candidates were nominated for President? What was 
Lincoln’s platform? Douglas’s? Breckinridge’s? Bell’s? What is se¬ 
cession? What states seceded? Who was elected President of the Con¬ 
federacy? What was Buchanan’s policy? What government property 
was seized by the South? 

Give an outline of the chapter. Write the names of six persons named 
in this chapter, and tell something of each. What dates and facts should 
be memorized? 



mm/m 


4*>*f mm m 


/VwJm'V 


ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 

With malice toward none, with charity for all 







CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865. 

ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN, 1861-1865. 

Inauguration. Amid such scenes Abraham Lincoln became 
President, March 4, 1861. On the way from his home at Spring- 
field, Illinois, to Washington, he made many speeches, and 
everywhere in the North was received with demonstrations of 
loyalty, but in the state of Maryland the sympathies of the 
people were divided. Rumors of a plan to assassinate Lincoln 
as he passed through Baltimore, where the spirit of secession 
ran high, led him, upon the advice of friends, to go from Phil¬ 
adelphia to Washington by night on a special train. 

Lincoln’s Policy. A wise, strong and resolute but kindly 
man was now at the helm to direct the nation. He announced 
his policy clearly, so that friend and foe alike knew what to 
expect. His inaugural address is a literary masterpiece, throb¬ 
bing with a love of humanity and country. “I have no pur¬ 
pose,” he said, among other things, “directly or indirectly, to 
interfere with, the institution of slavery where it already exists.” 

“No state, upon its own motion, can lawfully get out of the 
Union; resolves and ordinances to that effect are legally void.” 

“The power confided in me will be used to hold, occupy and 
possess the property and places belonging to the government, 
and to collect the duties and imposts.” 

“In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not 
in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government 
will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being 
yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in 
heaven to destroy the government, while I have the solemn one 
to preserve, protect and defend it. I am loth to close. We are 
not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though 

341 


342 


History of the United States. 



Salmon P. Chase. President Lincoln. Gideon Welles. Caleb Smith. Montgomery Blair. 

Edwin m: Stanton. William H. Seward. Edward Bates. 



The Civil War. 


343 


passion may have strained, it must not break, our bonds of 
affection.” 

Douglas and his thousands of followers heartily supported 
Lincoln’s expressed purpose to save the Union. 

The new cabinet was selected with a view to unite sentiment 
in the North. Of the seven advisers, four were of Democratic 
tendency, two were from the slave states, and at least two were 
prominent rivals of Lincoln for the presidency. 

THE OPENING EVENTS OF THE WAR. 

The Fall of Fort Sumter, April 14, 1861. Major Robert 
Anderson, in command of less than a hundred men, was sta¬ 
tioned at Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South 
Carolina. His stock of provisions and ammunition was low. 
Upon assuming the presidency, Lincoln decided to send men 
and supplies to Anderson. As soon as Davis heard of this, he 
ordered General P. G. T. Beauregard, who was in command of 
the Confederate forces at Charleston, to demand the surrender 
of Fort Sumter.* Upon the refusal of Anderson to surrender, 
the Confederates turned their batteries upon the fort and fired 
the first shot of the Civil War. For thirty-four hours they kept 
up a continuous bombardment. Anderson returned the fire, 
but the odds were too great. After food and ammunition were 
nearly exhausted, the barracks on fire, and the fort partly 
demolished, Anderson capitulated, April 14, 1861, marched out 
with honors of war, and was permitted to embark with his 
troops for New York. Not a man was killed on either side, 
but the affair was great in its consequences. Both sides pre¬ 
pared for war, and events followed each other in rapid suc¬ 
cession. 

On April 17th, President Davis issued a proclamation, offering 
letters of marque and reprisal (Const., clause 11, p. 206) to all 
who would prey upon the commerce of the United States. Ex- 

* Beauregard had been an officer in the regular army. He resigned, joined the Con¬ 
federacy, and had an army of about 6,000 men at Charleston. The flag floating over Fort 
Sumter was shot to tatters. Anderson carried it with him, and four years later to a day, 
after the surrender of the fort, he again hoisted the same flag over the same fort, when it 
was recaptured. 


344 


History of the United States. 


cepting the vessels secretly furnished by England, the efforts 
of the South to fit out commerce-destroyers were of but little 
avail. 

Lincoln’s Call for Troops. President Lincoln called for 
75,000 men, April 15th, and four days later declared the southern 
ports in a state of blockade.* A mighty wave of patriotism 
swept over the North. People forgot party animosities,’ and 
joined hands to preserve the Union. From field and farm, shop 
and store, mill and factory, from every walk of life came fathers 
and sons to offer their services, and, if need be, their lives for 
the nation. Fife and drum and floating flag helped to stir the 
war spirit. Troops hastened to the defense of Washington, 
which was in danger of being captured. Within thirty-six 
hours after the President’s call, the first troops reached the 
Capital City. On April 19, 1861, the same day of the same 
month already famous for the battles of Lexington and Concord, 
the first Union soldiers lost their lives. As the Sixth Massachu¬ 
setts regiment was passing through Baltimore it was attacked 
by a mob, and forced to fight its way through. In the conflict 
some rioters and a few soldiers were killed. Troops continued 
to pour into Washmgton until, in a short time, 50,000 soldiers, 
ready for service, were encamped about the city. No less re¬ 
markable was the outpouring of men in the South in support 
of their cause. 

Relative Strength of North and South. The North had 
an advantage over the South in several ways. Its population 
in 1860 was 19,000,000, while that of the South was only 
8,000,000 white and 4,000,000 slave. In industry, wealth and 
popular education the North greatly excelled the South. With 
its fertile farms and numerous mills, foundries and factories, it 
could furnish all kinds of military equipment, from a bullet to a 
cannon. The North was in every way self-sustaining, and in¬ 
dependent of foreign help. It also had control of the navy and 
"owned the dock-yards for building and repairing ships, while 
the South had neither navy nor dock-yards. 

* The President’s call for soldiers was apportioned among all states, free and slave, 
North and South, East and West, according to the population, but the southern states 
paid no attention to the call. 


The Civil War. 


345 


The South had a decided advantage in fighting on her own 
soil, on the defensive, and frequently behind breastworks. While 
Floyd was Secretary of War in Buchanan's administration he 
moved much of the ammunition and arms to southern arsenals, 
where they were seized by the Confederates at the outbreak of 
the war. The South was better prepared at the beginning, but 
did not have the resources for a long-continued struggle. The 
contest between the two sections at times seemed evenly bal¬ 
anced, but, barring the possible interference of France and 
England, the result was never in great doubt. 

Both the belligerent parties were equally brave, and fought 
for what they believed to be right. Time and the logic of 
events have proved that the views of the North were right and 
that its triumph resulted finally in good, not alone to the nation 
as a whole, but even to the South itself, after it had recovered 
from the immediate effects of war. 

Other States Secede. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and 
North Carolina seceded early in 1861, and joined the Con¬ 
federacy, which thus consisted of eleven states. 

Forty-five counties in the western part of Virginia refused to 
join the Confederacy.* The people in this mountainous dis¬ 
trict, in June, 1861, held a convention which made plans to form 
a new state. A free-state constitution was framed and state 
officers were elected. This was recognized by the government 
at Washington as the legal government representing Virginia, 
in order to comply with the provision in the Constitution which 
says that no new state may be formed out of another without 
the consent of the legislature of the state. In 1863 the new 
state was admitted to the Union under the name of West 
Virginia. 

War in the Border States. Lying next to the free states 
was a strip of slave territory in which sentiment was nearly 
equally divided between Union and Secession. It included 

* West Virginia is an illustration of the attitude of a section of a state toward slavery 
as affected by climate and soil. This pa£t of the state was not adapted to the use of slave 
labor. There were no great plantations, consequently few slaves. The eastern part of 
Tennessee almost seceded from Tennessee when that state joined the Confederacy. It is 
estimated that 100,()00 troops enlisted in the northern armies from the mountain region 
south of Pennsylvania. 


346 


History of the United States. 


the states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. 
The National Government recognized the importance of saving 
these states to the Union at the outset of the war. 

West Virginia. The Confederate state of Virginia sent an 
armed force to the mountain district to prevent the organization 
of a new state. Lincoln sent an army under the command of 
George B. McClellan to support the Federal cause. In a brief 
and aggressive campaign during the summer of 1861, McClellan 
defeated the Confederates at Philippi, Rich Mountain and 
Carrick’s Ford, freeing the state from open resistance to the 
Union. 

Missouri. It was a harder task to rid Missouri of Con¬ 
federate forces. Governor Claiborne F. Jackson was a strong 
secessionist, and used every effort to induce the state to secede. 
Delegates were elected to a state convention which was to decide 
the question of secession. Largely through the tact and skill of 
Francis P. Blair, a prominent citizen of St. Louis, a majority 
of the delegates elected, to the chagrin of Jackson, were Union¬ 
ists. 

The convention declared the state offices vacant, and selected 
loyal men who were to serve until others should be elected. 
Both sides organized armies and many severe engagements 
resulted. Nathaniel Lyon in command of a Union army cap¬ 
tured Jefferson City (1861), and displaced the state officers who 
favored secession. 

The severest battle of the year, except Bull Run, was fought 
August 10th, at Wilson’s Creek, where General Lyon with less 
than half the opposing forces met a Confederate army of 12,000 
under Generals Price and McCulloch. Lyon was killed. His 
army was forced to retreat, but later, on receiving reinforce¬ 
ments, it resumed the offensive and drove the Confederates 
into Arkansas. 

Other Border States. In the slave state of Delaware 
there was but little resistance to national authority. A ma¬ 
jority of the people in Kentucky and Maryland were in favor 
of the Union, but there were many within their borders who 
vigorously worked for secession. During the course, of the war 


The Civil War. 


347 



Gen. Winfield Scott. 


many persons from Kentucky and Maryland fought in the north¬ 
ern armies, while others fought with the South. These states, 
however, were saved to the Union, and formed neutral ground 
upon which were fought some of the great battles of the war. 

Position of the Armies. General 
Beauregard with an army of 20,000 Con¬ 
federates was encamped at Manassas, 
near Bull Run, about thirty-five miles 
southwest of Washington. General 
Joseph E. Johnston, general-in-chief of 
the Confederates, had another force of 
10,000 near Winchester, Virginia. Win¬ 
field Scott, general-in-chief of the Union 
army, sent General Robert Patterson 
to oppose Johnston and prevent him 
from sending aid to the Confederates 

at Bull Run, whom General Irwin McDowell was to attack. 

Battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861. The North had be¬ 
come impatient for results. “On to Richmond!” “On to Rich¬ 
mond!” was the cry of the people. Gen¬ 
eral Winfield Scott desired more time to 
drill and discipline the troops, but 
yielding to the popular cry, he sent 
McDowell forward with 30,000 men to 
attack the Confederates, who were 
strongly posted behind Bull Run. On 
Sunday, July 21, 1861, the Union Army 
made a spirited attack. The Confed¬ 
erates were forced back, and victory 
seemed certain for the Union troops. 

Johnston, however, having outgeneraled 
Patterson, slipped away from him and unexpectedly arrived 
with fresh troops to aid Beauregard. The tide of battle was 
turned from promised victory into bitter defeat, and the Federal 
troops fled in panic to Washington. 

The defeat of Bull Run taught a valuable lesson to the North. 
The people now saw that the rebellion could not be ended by a 



Gen. Joseph E. Johnston. 





348 


History of the United States. 


handful of undisciplined soldiers. The government prepared 
for war on a large scale. The day after the battle Congress 
voted to enlist an army of 500,000 men and to provide for 
$500,000,000 to carry on the war. The people of the South, 
jubilant over their victory, called for more troops with which, 
as they fondly expected, to bring the war speedily to a close. 

The Army of the Potomac Organized. The troops 
around Washington were formed into the Army of the Potomac, 
and General George B. McClellan was 
called from his victorious campaigns in 
West Virginia and placed at its head. 
His motto became, “ Organize and drill.” 
Regiment after regiment flocked into 
Washington, and McClellan set to work 
to convert the raw recruits into dis¬ 
ciplined soldiers before attempting to 
give battle. By December, 1861, 185,- 
000 soldiers were encamped around 
Washington, but no forward movements 
were attempted until the spring of 1862. 

Foregn Alfa rs. Soon after the beginning of the war, Eng¬ 
land, France and Spain recognized the Confederacy as a bel¬ 
ligerent power, and several times were on the point of inter¬ 
fering in behalf of the South. It was with difficulty that this 
was prevented. England was one of the first nations to free 
her slaves, and was a leading spirit in the movement for the 
freedom of all slaves. To this extent she was in sympathy with 
the North. On the other hand, her commercial and industrial 
interests (see Blockade, p. 361) were so dependent on the South 
that there was a strong temptation to recognize the independ¬ 
ence of the Confederacy. Fortunately, the two sections were 
left alone to settle the momentous question. 



Gen. George B. McClellan. 



The Civil War. 


349 


Suggestions for Review. 

What was the condition of the nation when Lincoln became President? 
What was Lincoln’s policy? What did he say about his oath? Tell of 
the fall of Fort Sumter. Tell of Lincoln’s call for troops. Contrast the 
relative strength of the North and South. What states were included in 
the Confederacy? How did West Virginia become a state? What were 
the Border States? How was Missouri prevented from seceding? Ken¬ 
tucky? Tell of the Battle of Bull Run. What was the Army of the 
Potomac? Who was the first commander? What position did England, 
France, Russia and Spain assume on the war? 


CHAPTER XXIX. 

CAMPAIGNS OF THE CIVIL WAR. 

GENERAL PLANS. 

It was not until the beginning of the year 1862 that the 
Federal government was prepared to prosecute the war on an 
extensive scale. The plans in general were to open the Mis¬ 
sissippi river, to defeat and subdue the Confederate armies, and 
to capture Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy. In ac¬ 
complishing these ends, the work of the Union armies may be 
' considered under the following heads: 

1. Grant’s campaigns in the West, and the opening of the 
Mississippi river. (1862-1863.) 

2. Buell and Rosecrans opposing Bragg in Kentucky and 
Tennessee. (1862-1863.) 

3. Sherman’s March to the Sea. (1864-1865.) 

4. Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac in its efforts to 
defeat General Lee and capture Richmond. (1862-1865.) 

5. The operations of the navy along the coast and in con¬ 
junction with the armies. 

GRANT IN THE WEST AND THE OPENING OF THE 
MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

Confederate Line of Defense. The Confederates held a 
line of defense from Mill Springs through Bowling Green, Forts 
Henry and Donelson to Columbus on the Mississippi. Albert 
Sidney Johnston, in chief command of the Confederates in the 
West, was at Bowling Green, confronted by General Buell. 
General Henry Halleck, chief in command of the Federal forces 
in the West, was at St. Louis, and General U. S. Grant was at 
Cairo, Illinois, at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi 
rivers. In November, 1861, Grant led an expedition down the 
river to Belmont, and succeeded in defeating the Confederates, 

350 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


351 



Tell a connected story of Grant’s campaigns in 
the West, giving plans, battles and results, as the 
army moved from Cairo to Belmont, Forts Henry 
and Donelson, Shiloh, Corinth, Iuka, Oxford, 
Memphis, Vicksburg, Memphis, and Chattanooga. 

but when they were reinforced from 
Columbus, he retired to his trans¬ 
ports and returned to Cairo. 

Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, February, 
1862. General Grant was the first to begin an active campaign 
in the year 1862. While McClellan 
was quietly organizing and drilling 
his army around Washington, Grant, 
with the aid of Commodore Foote, 
was battering down the Confederate 
line of defense in the West. Em¬ 
barking the army at Cairo, the fleet 
ascended the Ohio and Tennessee 
rivers to a point near Fort Henry. 

After a brief bombardment by the 
gunboats, the fort surrendered, Feb¬ 
ruary 6, 1862. Most of the Con¬ 
federate troops had been removed 
from Fort Henry to strengthen Fort Donelson, which lay twelve 
miles to the east, on the Cumberland river. Grant marched 



Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. 















352 


History of the United States. 


his troops to Fort Donelson, while Commodore Foote went by 
the Tennessee, Ohio and Cumberland rivers to the same place. 
Again the gunboats led the attack, but they were forced to re¬ 
tire. In a wintry rain, followed by snow and intense cold, 
Grant’s army closed in on the fort. After three days of des¬ 
perate fighting General Buckner asked for terms of surrender.* 
Grant promptly answered: “No terms except unconditional 
and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move 
immediately upon your works.” Sunday, February 16, 1862,, 
15,000 prisoners, up to this time the largest number that ever 
surrendered in an American battle, laid down their arms. 

The Effect. This great victory opened the Tennessee and 
Cumberland rivers, made the Confederates abandon their line 
of defense in the West, and revived the drooping spirits of the 
North. General Johnston moved south from Bowling Green, 
Kentucky, to Corinth, Mississippi. Columbus was abandoned 
(March 4). Soon after, Pope, another of Halleck’s generals, 
in conjunction with Commodore Foote captured New Madrid 
and Island No. 10, on the Mississippi, f General George H. 
Thomas had defeated the Confederates at Mill Springs in 
January, so the entire Confederate line of defense was pushed 
southward. The Confederates established a new line, extend¬ 
ing from Chattanooga on the east through Corinth to Memphis 
on the west. 

Battle of Shiloh, April 6, 1862. After the capture of Fort 
Donelson, Grant took his troops in transports up the Tennes¬ 
see to Pittsburg Landing, expecting to break through the Con¬ 
federate line of defense at Corinth. Buell had instructions to 
join him before an attack should be made. While Grant was 
waiting for Buell, he was suddenly attacked by Johnston’s 
army, April 6, 1862, and driven back to the slope along the 

* General John B. Floyd, Secretary of War in Buchanan’s administration, had been in 
command at Fort Donelson. He was in disfavor at Washington for moving military stores 
into the South. Fearing to fall into Union hands, he and General Pillow escaped up the 
river with several thousand troops, and turned their command over to General Buckner. 
For this act of cowardice, Floyd was reprimanded by Jefferson Davis and dismissed from 
the service. 

t The islands in the Mississippi are numbered by the government on its charts from the 
mouth of the Ohio down the stream; hence the name Island No. 10. 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


353 


river. But during the night Buell’s army arrived, 20,000 
strong. The battle was renewed the next day, and after some 
desperate fighting near the old Shiloh 
church, the Confederates were defeated 
and driven from the field. Johnston 
was killed, and Beauregard, who suc¬ 
ceeded him, withdrew to Corinth. 

On the same day that Shiloh was 
fought, the Federal gunboats defeated 
the Confederate fleet at Memphis and 
took possession of the city. General 
Halleck now arrived and took per- 
. sonal command of the Union army, 
and prepared to attack Corinth; but Gen * AlbertSidneyJohnston - 
when he appeared before the city, the enemy quietly with¬ 
drew to Tupelo. Before any other movement took place, 
Halleck received a telegram, July 11, 1862, appointing him 
general-in-chief with headquarters at Washington, to suc¬ 
ceed McClellan, who had been conducting an unsatisfactory 
campaign around Richmond. Grant succeeded Halleck in the 
West. 

CAMPAIGNS OF BUELL AND BRAGG IN KENTUCKY 
AND TENNESSEE. 

Movement on Chattanooga, and Invasion of Kentucky. 

General Beauregard resigned on account of ill-health, and 
General Braxton Bragg, who succeeded him in command, 
divided his army so as to cover Chattanooga and Vicksburg, 
both places of great strategic value to the Confederates. Buell’s 
army was again detached from Grant’s command to look after 
the former, while Grant moved against the latter. The re¬ 
building of the railroads, which had been partially destroyed, 
delayed Buell so that Bragg reached Chattanooga first. Hoping 
to recover lost ground, get supplies and gain recruits, he began 
an invasion of Kentucky, which drew Buell after him. A lively 
race ensued for Louisville. By forced marches Buell reached 
the city first. General Kirby Smith, in command of 12,000 



354 


History of the United States. 



Trace the movements of the Union and Confederate armies in Kentucky and Tennessee, 
giving plans, battles, and results. 


Confederate cavalry, advanced from Knoxville through Cum¬ 
berland Gap, and Richmond, Kentucky, (where he defeated 
General Nelson in charge of the Federal cavalry,) to Frankfort. 
Here he joined Bragg, and an attempt was made to set up a 
Confederate government, but it was foiled by the approach 
of Federal troops. 

Battle of Perryville, and Confederate Retreat. General 
Buell, after receiving reinforcements at Louisville, went in 
pursuit of Bragg, and overtook him at Perryville, October 8, 
1862. A severe battle was fought, with heavy loss to both 
armies. General Bragg retired from the field, and, retreating 
slowly through Cumberland Gap, got his immense wagon-train 
back to Chattanooga in safety. 

Both Lincoln and Davis were dissatisfied with the conduct of 










Campaigns of. the Civil War. 


3 55 


their generals. Davis ordered General Bragg to move north. 
Lincoln was displeased with Buell because he had permitted the 
Confederate army to invade the state of Kentucky and carry 
away an immense amount of stock and supplies, while he had 
engaged it in but one battle. His command was therefore given 
to General W. S. Rosecrans. 

Battle of Murfreesboro, December 31 and January 2. 

In accordance with instructions, Bragg advanced northward 
as far as Murfreesboro, where he was attacked by Rosecrans’s 
army. After two days of desperate fighting (December 31, 
1862, and January 2, 1863), in which each side lost more than 
10,000 men, killed, wounded and captured, Bragg again re¬ 
treated toward Chattanooga. Rosecrans remained at Murfrees¬ 
boro until June, and then, by skillful movements, forced Bragg 
to retreat into northwestern Georgia, while he took possession 
of Chattanooga. 

Capture of New Orleans, April 25, 1862. While Grant, 
Buell and Rosecrans were driving the Confederate lines south¬ 
ward, another Union force entered the mouth of the Mississippi 
to aid in opening the river. One of the chief strongholds was 
New Orleans, at that time the largest city in the Confederacy, 
with important workshops and facilities for supplying the 
southern armies with weapons and other military supplies. It 
was the shipping-point for grain, stock and produce from the 
southwest. The entrance to the city was guarded by two strong 
forts, St. Philip and Jackson, on the opposite banks of the Mis¬ 
sissippi, about seventy-four miles below the city. Two heavy 
iron chains fastened on anchored rafts were stretched across the 
river between the forts, and a fleet of Confederate gunboats, two 
of them ironclads, stood guard above. The Confederates be¬ 
lieved that approach to New Orleans by the Mississippi, thus 
fortified, was impossible. 

David Farragut, aided by a land force under General B. F. 
Butler, was in command of the fleet sent to open the river 
and capture New Orleans. For five days and nights he bom¬ 
barded the forts with but little effect. He then tried the dar¬ 
ing plan of running through the obstructions and past the 


356 


History of the United States. 



Commodore David Farragut. 


forts. April 24, 1862, he cut the chains, steamed up the 
river with seventeen vessels, ran the gauntlet of the forts in 
the face of a terrific fire amidst burn¬ 
ing oil and floating fire-rafts, and en¬ 
countered and destroyed the entire 
Confederate fleet. A small army 
under General Lovell fled from New 
Orleans as Commodore Farragut en¬ 
tered the city, April 25. Butler fol¬ 
lowed with his army in transports, 
and, after capturing Forts St. Philip 
and Jackson, he was placed in mili¬ 
tary command of the city. 

The victory was a brilliant one, 
and the fall of New Orleans a heavy 
blow to the Confederacy; for it meant the loss of the entire 
southwest, which had largely supplied the armies with grain 
and cattle. 

Farragut went up the river and captured Baton Rouge and 
Natchez, and attempted, but failed, to capture Vicksburg. 
Its location on high bluffs made it impregnable without the aid 
of a land force. 

Battles of Iuka and Corinth. After Grant had been 
greatly weakened by the withdrawal of Buell’s forces, the Con¬ 
federates, Price and Van Dorn, tried to destroy his army by 
falling upon Rosecrans’s* division at Iuka, September 19, 1862, 
where- they suffered defeat. Again they attacked him at 
Corinth, but after a bloody contest retreated in disorder. 

Rosecrans was then promoted to succeed Buell at Nashville 
(September, 1863), and Van Dorn was superseded by General 
Pemberton, who held command at Vicksburg, the only remain¬ 
ing stronghold on the Mississippi. 

Capture of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863.— Grant’s First At¬ 
tempt. In the fall of 1862 , General Grant attempted to capture 
Vicksburg by sending General W. T. Sherman* down the 


* Sherman and Rosecrans each had a command under Grant. 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


357 


Mississippi in transports with instructions to assault the works 
at Vicksburg while Grant marched overland, expecting to draw 
Pemberton’s army from behind its fortifications. When Grant 
was at Oxford, Van Dorn got in his rear and destroyed several 
million dollars’ worth of his supplies at Holly Springs (December 
20, 1862), and Sherman’s attack on Vicksburg was unsuccessful. 

Grant’s Second Movement. Grant, abandoning the idea 
of marching to Vicksburg, next went to Memphis, where his 
troops were put on transports and taken down the Mississippi 
to Milliken’s Bend. He tried to cut a canal in the bend of the 
river so as to change the course of the stream, take the fleet and 
troops below the city, and make an attack from that quarter. 
The canal project failed. One dark night, April 26, 1862, 
Admiral Porter ran his gunboats with barges in tow past the 
Vicksburg batteries, with the loss of only one vessel-, and Grant 
marched his troops down to Hard Times, where they were met 
by the fleet and taken across the river. Pemberton came out 
to meet the invading army, but was defeated at Port Gibson 
and Raymond. Joseph E. Johnston, now chief-in-command 
in the West, arrived with an army to aid Pemberton, but he 
was defeated at Jackson by Sherman’s corps. Grant pressed 
heavily upon Pemberton, defeating him at Champion Hills and 
at the Big Black River, after which Pemberton withdrew within 
his defenses. After assaulting the fortifications with heavy 
loss, Grant settled down to a siege, with every avenue of escape 
cut off from the Confederates. For seven weeks, day and night, 
Grant poured shot and shell into the doomed city. Families 
took refuge in cellars and caves to escape the dreadful destruc¬ 
tion of the bursting bombs. Food gave out; even the mule- 
meat and corn-meal had become exhausted. Starvation, sick¬ 
ness and exhaustion threatened the destruction of many lives. 
Further resistance was suicidal; so Pemberton hung out the 
white flag and surrendered 31,000 men, July 4, 1863.* 

The effects of the victory were far-reaching: 1. Port Hudson 
surrendered five days later, thus completing the opening of the 

* In addition to this, the Confederates lost about 15,000 killed, wounded and captured 
in the series of battles around Vicksburg. 


358 History of the United States. 

Mississippi river; 2. Thirty-one thousand men were taken out 
of the Confederate service; 3.‘Grant’s forces were able to go 
to the relief of the Union army shut up in Chattanooga. Had 
no relief come to this army, it would have had to surrender, and 
Bragg’s army would have been taken to swell the Confederate 
forces in other sections of the South. 

Battle of Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. 
While Rosecrans was waiting in Chattanooga, General Bragg 
silently began the work of collecting the largest Confederate 
army that ever appeared in the West. Troops were brought 
from Tennessee and Mississippi, and 20,000 veteran soldiers 
under Longstreet were sent by Lee from Virginia. With an 
army of 70,000 men Bragg attacked Rosecrans’s army of 55,- 
000 at Chickamauga Creek. Here was fought one of the 
bloodiest battles of the war. The first day was indecisive. The 
second day the Union right broke, and 
fled to Chattanooga. The center gave 
way, but General George H. Thomas re¬ 
mained steadfast as a rock on the left, 
and saved the Union army from utter 
rout. Again and again the Confed¬ 
erates hurled their heavy columns 
against his ranks, but Thomas held his 
ground with desperate firmness, seldom 
equaled in the annals of war. For this 
splendid service he was ever after called 
Gen. George, H. Thomas. « The RoC k of Chickamauga.” At night 

he retreated to Chattanooga. Here Bragg besieged the Union 
army, cut off its communications, thus expecting to starve it 
into surrender. 

Relief for Chattanooga. General Halleck, becoming 
alarmed for the safety of Rosecrans’s army, sent Hooker from 
the army of the Potomac with 20,000 men; Sherman was 
brought with a large force from Vicksburg. Rosecrans was 
superseded by General George H. Thomas; and General Grant, 
having been placed in command of all troops west of the 



Campaigns of the Civil War. 


359 


mountains, speedily arranged to drive the enemy from their 
strongholds on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. 

Battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, 
November, 1863. The Confederates, now clearly outnum¬ 
bered, were forced to take 
the defensive. Hooker’s 
troops charged the works 
at Lookout Mountain, No¬ 
vember 24, carried the rifle- 
pits, drove the enemy from 
their intrenchments, and 
following them up the 
mountain-slopes over boul¬ 
ders and ledges, planted the 
Stars and Stripes on the 
crest of the mountain. The 
routed Confederates took 
refuge with their comrades 
on Missionary Ridge. 

On November 25th, the 
thrilling scenes of the pre¬ 
vious day were reenacted by 
Sherman and Thomas'in the 
assault upon Missionary 
Ridge. Their troops were 
directed to take the line of 
rifle-pits on the side of the ridge and there wait for orders, 
but the soldiers did not stop. They carried the rifle-pits, and 
then, spurred on by their enthusiasm, charged up the mountain 
until the Confederates fled over the crest and down the opposite 
slope. 

Bragg had greatly weakened his army before the battle of 
Lookout Mountain by sending Longstreet with 20,000 men to 
capture Burnside at Knoxville. Longstreet laid siege to that 
city, but after the Union victory at Chattanooga, Sherman was 
sent to the relief of Burnside. Longstreet then abandoned the 
siege and rejoined his old commander, Lee, in Virginia. 








360 


History of the United States. 

Campaigns of the Civil War. 

Upon what general plans did the government prosecute the war? Give 
Grant’s-campaigns in the west, telling a connected story of what was done. 
Why did Bragg invade Kentucky? What battle ended his invasion? 
What great battle was fought in Tennessee? What battle was fought in 
northern Georgia? What army was shut up in Chattanooga? Who took 
New Orleans? Tell of the movements against Vicksburg, its capture and 
the result. Tell of the Battle of Lookout Mountain. Of Missionary 
Ridge. What was the effect of these campaigns in the West? Name the 
leading Union and the leading Confederate officers. Which was the most 
important battle? Why? 



CHAPTER XXX. 

THE NAVY IN THE CIVIL WAR. 


The Navy of 1861. At the outbreak of the rebellion our 
navy consisted of ninety vessels. Fifty of them were sailing- 
ships, and forty propelled by steam. They were mostly in 
foreign ports or laid up in the navy yards, not more than a 
dozen being at once available for use. The Federal government 
realized the importance of a good navy, and at once set to work 
to build one. The vessels in foreign ports were called home, 
more war-ships were hastily built, and many merchant vessels 
were purchased and fitted for naval service. 

The South began the war without any navy and with but 
limited means to create one. Had it not been for the aid of 
England, acting contrary to the duty of a neutral nation, but 
little damage could have been done by the Confederacy to the 
commerce of the United States. 

Objects of the Navy. The navy had a great task to per¬ 
form. Its duties were: 

1. To blockade the entire Confederate coast from Chesapeake 
Bay to the Rio Grande, a distance of 3,000 miles. 

2. To aid in opening the Mississippi river and its tributaries. 

3. To protect the commerce of the United States and destroy 
the Confederate cruisers and blockade-runners. 

4. To capture the forts and seaports scattered along the coast. 

5. Whenever within cooperating distance, to aid the armies 
along the rivers and coasts in the various campaigns. 

The Blockade of the South. Lincoln’s order to blockade 
the southern coast was issued April 19, 1861. No ships from 
any country were to be allowed to enter or leave the ports of 
the South, and armed vessels were stationed along the coast 
to make the order effective. This stopped an extensive trade 
between the South and Great Britain. 

361 


362 


History of the United States. 


The South produced great quantities of cotton. Her exports 
in 1860 amounted to $202,000,000, most of which were shipped 
to England. She had but few machine-shops, gun-factories or 
foundries, but by the sale of cotton in Europe expected to 
purchase military supplies. 

Effect of the Blockade. By reason of the blockade but 
little ^cotton could be exported. The price fell to 8 cents a 
pound in the South and rose to 60 cents in England. Of the 
4,000,000 persons in Great Britain dependent upon southern 
cotton for their support, hundreds of thousands were thrown 
out of employment. At least half a million had to rely upon 
public charity for food. The Confederates believed that Eng¬ 
land would break the blockade to protect her manufacturing 
interests, and thus open the way for the South to get supplies 
for her armies. 

“Blockade-runners.” The “blockade-runners” were long, 
low-decked, foreign-made steamers, built for speed and designed 
to escape the blockade unnoticed. They drew only a few feet 
of water, and burned anthracite coal, which made but little 
smoke. Thus they could glide in and out of the shallow waters 
of the southern coast where the heavier blockading vessels 
could not follow. They carried the cotton from the southern 
states to Nassau, the capital of the Bahama Islands, and to 
the West Indies, where it was taken upon vessels bound for 
England, and in return, they brought cargoes of British sup¬ 
plies to feed, clothe and equip southern troops. During the 
war more than 1,000 of these vessels were captured and over 
300 sunk. 

Confederate Cruisers, or Commerce-Destroyers. These 
cruisers were a class of armed vessels, most of which were pur¬ 
chased from private companies in England, and sent out to 
destroy the commerce of the North. They roamed the seas, 
generally the highways of commerce, in search of merchantmen, 
which when the war opened were to be found in all the ports of 
the world. They kept a sharp lookout, and when any cargo of 
merchandise hove in sight they would seize and burn it. The 


The Navy in the Civil War. 


363 


Sumter, Florida, Alabama and Shenandoah were among the most 
destructive of these vessels. 

The Trent Affair, 1861. While Captain Wilkes, in com¬ 
mand of the San Jacinto, was in search of the cruiser Sumter, 
he heard that James M. Mason and John Slidell, Confederate 
commissioners to Great Britain and France, had escaped the 
blockade, and were about to sail from Havana for England in 
the British steamer Trent. So Captain Wilkes went in search 
of the Trent, intercepted hef, and took from her Mason and 
Slidell. He had no right to do this, as it was a power which 
England claimed the right to exercise, years before, and which 
she had been compelled to abandon as a result of the war of 
1812. The seizure of these envoys produced great excitement 
in England, and if the counsels of Lincoln had not prevailed, 
might have led to war. “We shall have to give these men up 
and apologize for what we have done,” he said. They were 
consequently released, and sailed for Europe January 1, 1862. 

. The Merrimac and the Monitor. The Unionists, fearing 
that they could not hold the great navy yard at Norfolk, Vir¬ 
ginia, abandoned the place, April, 1861. Before leaving it they 
sank most of the ships and set fire to the buildings. The Con¬ 
federates at once took possession and raised the sunken vessels. 
One of these ships, the Merrimac, which they rechristened the 
Virginia, they made into an ironclad by covering her sloping 
sides with a double coating of iron plates, each two inches thick. 
At her bow they fastened a great cast-iron ram. This was the 
beginning of a new era in naval warfare. On March 8, 1862, 
the Merrimac steamed out into Hampton Roads to destroy the 
Federal fleet of wooden war-vessels. Ships and land batteries 
opened a cannonade on the new antagonist, but with no more 
effect than if they had thrown rubber balls against her. With 
her beak she rammed a hole in the Cumberland and sank her 
with officers and crew still on board. She next turned to the 
Congress , which had grounded, riddled her with shot and shell, 
and set her on fire. On the approach of night the iron champion 
withdrew to Norfolk, hoping to renew the attack the next 
morning. 


364 


History of the United States. 



During the night the little ironclad 
Monitor * designed by John Ericsson 
and built in New York, arrived, after a, 
tempestuous ocean voyage, to oppose 
the Merrimac and to guard the remain¬ 
ing Union vessels. The iron-coated 
deck of the Monitor was only about 
three feet above the water. On the top 
of the deck was an iron-coated cylinder 
or turret, which could be rotated so as 
to fire in any direction the two eleven- 
inch cannon mounted within. The con¬ 
struction of the Monitor had been rushed with the greatest 
haste, so as to match ironclad with ironclad. 

On Sunday morning, March 9th, the Merrimac steamed forth 
to complete her work of destruction. The Monitor had taken 
a station near the Minnesota, which was stuck fast in the shal¬ 
lows. As the huge Merrimac approached, carrying ten guns, 
the little Monitor boldly advanced to meet her, and started 
' one of the greatest naval battles of modern times. The con- 

* From the round, cheese-like appearance of the turret, the Monitor was called the 
“Yankee cheese-box.” 











The Navy in the Civil War. 365 

flict was long and furious. Neither vessel was seriously in¬ 
jured, but the Merrimac, after fighting five hours, withdrew to 
Norfolk. 

The Alabama.* The most notorious of all Confederate 
cruisers was the Alabama. She was built at Liverpool for Con¬ 
federate service, and put to sea against the protests of Charles 
Francis Adams, our minister at London. For two years she 
cruised the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and the Mediterranean 
Sea in search of Union merchant vessels. Her plan was always 
the same : with a British flag flying, she would approach the in¬ 
tended victim, and then, suddenly raising the Confederate 
colors, would seize and burn her defenseless prey. Sixty-six 
vessels, amounting with their cargoes to nearly $7,000,000 in 
value, were destroyed. The Federal man-of-war Kearsarge, 
commanded by Captain Winslow, finally engaged the Alabama 
in battle, June 19, 1864, off the coast of Cherbourg, France, and 
sank her in less than an hour. 

The Shenandoah and Florida were also both built and 
manned in England. The former was armed, and was turned 
over to the Confederates at one of the Madeira Islands; the 
latter at one of the Bahamas. The Florida f was captured at 
Bahia, Brazil, but the Shenandoah roved the seas, especially 
around Alaska, until the end of the war, when she was turned 
over to the Federal government. 

During the war the United States was in no position to com¬ 
pel England to observe neutrality obligations, but after the war 
closed, England was required to pay for all damage done to 
American commerce by vessels which she had allowed to be 
built for Confederate use. (See Alabama Claims, p. 409.) 

Other Coast Operations. In addition to the great work of 
blockading the coast, of assisting the army in its many cam¬ 
paigns, and of searching for Confederate cruisers, the navy had 

* While in the dock she was known as "No. 290.” She set sail under an English flag 
with an English crew. When at the Azore Islands she was turned over to Confederate 
officers, and her name changed to the Alabama. 

t The Florida was captured in the neutral harbor Bahia, in violation of treaty of rights. 
She was to be returned to Brazil, but while on the way there she was sunk by an unfore¬ 
seen “accident.” 


366 History of the United States. 

the task of capturing the forts and harbors along the coast of 
the Confederacy. 

Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, was taken in August, 1861, 
and Port Royal, South Carolina, in November, 1861. Roanoke 
Island, Elizabeth City, Newbern and other places along the 
coast of North Carolina were captured in 1862, and when Mc¬ 
Clellan seized Yorktown, the great navy yard at Norfolk, 
Virginia, was abandoned by the Confederates. 

In the spring of 1863 a fleet of seven ironclads of the Monitor 
type made an unsuccessful attack on Charleston. A land and 
naval force also systematically bombarded the town and forts 
during the summer, but the Confederates remained in posses¬ 
sion until Sherman’s march through Carolina, when they 
abandoned the place from which had been fired the first shot of 
the Civil War. 

After persistent and hard fighting, Fort Fisher, another haven 
for blockade-runners, was captured, January 15, 1865, by a 
combined land and naval force. General Schofield followed up 
this victory by capturing Wilmington, North Carolina, Febru¬ 
ary 22, 1865, and then went to reinforce Sherman at Goldsboro. 

Mobile Bay. Mobile was a favorite resort for blockade- 
runners, and after the fall of New Orleans was the only Con¬ 
federate port remaining on the Gulf. Realizing its imporr 
tance, the Confederates had carefully guarded it by building 
two strong forts, Morgan and Gaines, one on each side of the 
entrance to the bay, and lined the channel with torpedoes. 
Three gunboats and a powerful ironclad ram, the Tennessee , 
stood guard. To Commodore Farragut,* the hero of New Or¬ 
leans, was assigned the task of clearing the bay. Mounting 
the rigging of his flagship, where he could direct the battle, he 
ran the Union fleet, with its vessels lashed together two and 
two, past the forts and torpedo mines, amid a terrific fire from 
the enemy, without the loss of a single ship. In a short but 
fierce battle every Confederate vessel was captured (August 5, 
1864). Both forts were soon after taken, but the city of Mobile 
was held by the Confederates until April, 1865. 


* He was tied fast to the mast, to prevent him from falling in case he should be shot. 


The Navy in the Civil War. 


367 



Farbagut at Mobile Bay. 

Albemarle. After the destruction of the two Confederate 
ironclads the Merrimac and the Tennessee , the ironclad ram 
Albemarle was the only formidable one remaining. After 
she had twice done much damage to the Union fleet, Lieutenant 
Cushing volunteered to destroy her. One dark night in October 
(1864), in a small boat, he approached the ironclad off Plymouth, 
North Carolina, and sent a torpedo crashing through her. 
Cushing jumped into the dark waters and made a miraculous 
escape, while all but one of his companions were captured by 
the enemy. 

Suggestions for Review. 

How many vessels were there in the United States navy in 1861? In 
the South? What five duties fell upon the United States navy? What is 
meant by blockade? What ports were blockaded? What was a blockade- 
runner? What interests did England have in the South? Tell of the 
Confederate cruisers. Where was the Alabama built? What was the 
Trent affair? Tell of the battle of the Merrimac and Monitor. Of the 
battle of the Alabama and Kearsarge. Of the battle of Charleston Harbor. 
Of the Battle of Mobile Bay. What was the strength of the navy in 1865? 
At what inland battles did the navy greatly aid the land forces? Did the 
navy accomplish the tasks assigned to it? Give the names of some naval 
officers. 






CHAPTER XXXI. 

CAMPAIGNS OF THE CIVIL WAR. 

ARMY OF THE POTOMAC. 

Plans of the Army of the Potomac. The aim of the Army 
of the Potomac was to defeat the Confederate Army in Vir¬ 
ginia and to capture Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy. 
McClellan, with skill and energy, soon converted the raw troops 
into a splendid army, but he was slow to lead them forward to 
meet his opponent. A month after Grant’s brilliant victory 
at Forts Henry and Donelson, the army of the Potomac was 
still at Washington. “On to Richmond!” again became the 
cry of the North. Lincoln wanted McClellan to march his 
army overland. By this plan the same army that marched 
against Richmond would protect Washington in the rear. 
McClellan wished to go down the Potomac river and Chesapeake 
Bay and move up the peninsula formed by the York and James 
rivers. He was allowed to have his way on condition that a 
sufficient force be left to protect Washington. 

Generals Banks and Fremont were sent into the Shenandoah 
Valley, while General McDowell was to march through Fred¬ 
ericksburg and join McClellan near Richmond. 

Peninsular Campaign. McClellan’s army of more than 
100,000 men embarked at Alexandria in March, 1862. They 
landed at Fortress Monroe, and spent a month in preparing 
to capture the historic village of Yorktown. When all was 
ready the Confederates slipped away. The Union advance 
under General Joseph E. Hooker overtook and defeated the* 
Confederate rear at Williamsburg, May 5th, a month after 
the battle of Shiloh. McClellan moved up the peninsula, and 
made White House Landing his depot of . supplies. Anxiously 
awaiting the arrival of McDowell’s army, he placed part of his 

368 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


369 


troops on the north side of the Chickahominy river, and part 
on the south side of the stream at Seven Pines. Here he was 
furiously attacked by the Confed¬ 
erates (May 31st), who the next 
day renewed the battle at Fair Oaks, 
but were repulsed. General John¬ 
ston,* having been seriously wound¬ 
ed, was succeeded by General Robert 
E. Lee, a man of great military abil¬ 
ity, who continued to direct the 
Confederate armies until the close 
of the war. 

Stonewall Jackson’s Raid. 

Meanwhile, Thomas J. Jackson 
(familiarly known as “Stonewall” 

Jackson), a daring and brilliant 
leader, had been sent up the Shen¬ 
andoah Valley to oppose the movements of Banks and Fre¬ 
mont, to threaten Washington, and to keep McDowell from 
uniting with McClellan. With a force of 
15,000 men he marched rapidly down the 
valley, defeated Banks at Winchester, 
and cleared the valley of Federal troops. 

The authorities at Washington became 
alarmed. McDowell was recalled, and 
sent with 20,000 men to aid Banks and 
Fremont in an effort to capture or de¬ 
stroy Jackson’s army. But this wily gen¬ 
eral, scenting the danger, beat a hasty 
retreat, and appeared at Richmond in 
time to aid Lee in driving back McClel- G en. stonewall Jackson. 
Ian’s army. 

Seven Days’ Battle, June 26 to July 1, 1862. After Mc¬ 
Dowell was called north, Lee began a series of terrific assaults, 
known as the Seven Days’ Battle, upon the Union army. At 

* J. E. Johnston was incapacitated until fall. His next service of importance was 
rendered at Vicksburg, 1863. 




Gen. Robert E. Lee. 






370 


History of the United States. 


Mechanicsville (June 26th) he was repulsed, but he renewed 
the battle the next day at Gaines’s Mill. McClellan then be¬ 
gan to change his base and transfer his wagon-trains of sup¬ 
plies from the York river to the James river. Lee was quick 
to seize the advantage. Again and again he attacked McClel¬ 
lan’s army—at White Oak Swamp, Savage Station, Frazier’s 
Farm, and Malvern Hill. McClellan withdrew to Harrison 
Landing, and later moved north to the defense of Washington. 
In this long and bloody conflict Lee lost more men than Mc¬ 
Clellan, but the moral effect of the victory rested with the Con¬ 
federates. McClellan conducted a masterly retreat, but failed 
wholly to do the task for which he set out. He was a superb 
drill-master, but slow to lead his men in aggressive fighting. 
He thought more of saving his army from defeat than of lead¬ 
ing it to victory. 

After these battles Lee prepared to invade Maryland, mak¬ 
ing his movements to the north at the same time that Bragg 
was invading Kentucky.* 

The Army of Virginia and Second Bull Run. The three 
separate armies under Banks, Fremont and McDowell were 
united (June 26, 1862), into one, called the Army of Virginia, 
and placed under the command of General John Pope. This 
army stretched across the state of Virginia from the Potomac 
to the Blue Ridge, with its right wing at Cedar Mountain and 
its left near Manassas Junction. Jackson defeated Banks 
at Cedar Mountain; then, joining Lee, the entire Confederate 
army fell upon the Union army at the old Bull Run battle¬ 
field, and after two days’ hard fighting (August 29-30) drove 
it back upon the fortifications of Washington. Pope resigned 
his command and his army was united with the Army of the 
Potomac, f Halleck in the mean time had arrived from the 
West, and assumed the duties of general-in-chief, with head¬ 
quarters at Washington, while McClellan, now again actively 
commanding the Army of the Potomac, advanced to meet Lee. 

* By the invasion of the North Lee hoped to carry the burden of the war into the North, 
to receive more recruits, and, by winning a victory on northern soil, induce England to 
recognize the independence of the Confederacy. 

t The Army of the Potomac was taken from Harrison Landing in transports to Wash¬ 
ington, and should have arrived in time to take part in the second Bull Run battle. 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


371 



Trace the movements of the Army of the Potomac, giving plans, battles and re¬ 
sults, from Alexandria to Fortress Monroe; to Williamsburg; to Seven Pines, Fair 
Oaks, Mechanicsville, Gaines’s Mill, Malvern Hill, and Fort Monroe; to Alexandria; 
thence to Antietam; to Fredericksburg; to Chancellorsville; to Gettysburg; to 
Culpeper Court House; to the Wilderness, Spottsylvania Court House, North 
Anna, Cold Harbor, Richmond, and Petersburg; to Appomattox. 

Lee’s Invasion of Maryland, and the Battle of Antietam. 

Lee’s victorious hosts, flushed with victory, crossed the Po¬ 
tomac in high spirits, expecting a large number of recruits. 








372 


History of the United States. 


But the people of Maryland did not flock to Lee’s standard. 
Instead, he soon found the Army of the Potomac in close pur¬ 
suit. McClellan drove Lee from South Mountain Pass after 
a sharp battle, and on September 16th and 17th engaged him 
in one of the bloodiest battles of the war, at Antietam Creek. 
After this battle Lee recrossed the Potomac, and moved up 
the Shenandoah Valley. Stonewall Jackson had again made 
a brilliant detour, captured a garrison of 11,000 men at Harper’s 
Ferry, and joined his chief in time to take part in the battle 
of Antietam. McClellan halted for about six weeks after 
the battle, and then followed east of the mountains, but made 
no effort to attack the shattered Confederate forces. Because 
he lacked energy and dispatch in pursuing the campaign, at 
Warrenton he was relieved of the command of the army, and 
Ambrose E. Burnside was appointed to succeed him. 

The Emancipation Proclamation. When the war be¬ 
gan there was no intention on the part of the people of the North 
to interfere with slavery in the southern states; but as the 
war progressed, sentiment gradually changed. The slaves were 
a source of great strength to the South. They served the 
families, cared for the plantations, raised supplies \o support 
the soldiers in the field, and performed labor in the army. 
Northern leaders also believed that England would be less 
likely to recognize the independence of the South if the gov¬ 
ernment should declare for the freedom of the slaves. While the 
President had no constitutional right to free the slaves, he could 
do so as a war measure. It is the right and duty of the Pres¬ 
ident to suppress rebellion by any means necessary to success. 
The slaves helped to raise the crops that fed the armies which 
fought the government. To abolish slavery would therefore 
weaken the southern armies. In this Lincoln found a technical 
legal ground for proclaiming freedom to the slaves. He now 
waited only for a favorable time to take this step, and made 
a solemn vow that if Lee were defeated he would issue a procla¬ 
mation freeing the slaves. Lee’s retreat after Antietam was 
sufficient for Lincoln’s purpose, and five days later, on Sep¬ 
tember 22, 1862, he warned the seceded states that unless 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


373 


they laid down their arms and returned to the Union before 
January 1st he would set the slaves within their territory free. 
None of the states heeded the warning; so, on January 1, 1863, 
he issued the famous Emancipation Proclamation,* saying in 
effect: “I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves 
within said designated statesf and parts of states are, and hence¬ 
forth shall be, free.” 

Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862. Burn¬ 
side, after taking command, moved toward Richmond along 
the north bank of the Rappahannock to Falmouth. Lee went 
along the south side of the river, and fortified* his army at 
Fredericksburg. Thus the two armies lay almost within view 
of each other, awaiting the hour of battle. Burnside’s army 
greatly outnumbered Lee’s, but Lee’s army was posted behind 
earthworks and stone walls along the hills of Fredericksburg. { 
The task of taking this stronghold was almost hopeless. With 
more daring than wisdom, Burnside crossed the river with his 
troops and ordered an assault (December 13, 1862). Column 
after column was mowed down, with frightful slaughter. 
Burnside wished to renew the battle the next day, but his divi¬ 
sion commanders dissuaded him, and he recrossed the river 
to Falmouth. 

Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2nd and 3rd, 1863.) 

At his own request, Burnside was relieved of command and 
General Joseph E. Hooker was appointed to succeed him. 
The troops were gloomy and dispirited. An average of two 
hundred soldiers were deserting daily, and thousands were 
absent from duty. Hooker set to work to organize and drill, 
and soon had his army of 120,000 men in good trim for fighting. 
He crossed the river far above Fredericksburg with the main 
army, while Sedgwick’s division crossed below the city, ex¬ 
pecting to draw Lee’s army from its fortified position, and crush 
it between the two divisions; but the two Union divisions did 

*The Proclamation did not apply to any of the loyal slave states. In April, 1862, 
Congress had passed an act freeing the slaves in the District of Columbia. 

f Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (excepting certain parishes), Mississippi, Alabama, 
Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia except West Virginia. 

% What battle was fought in the West in the same month? 


374 


History of the United States. 


not attack at the same time. Lee boldly sallied forth, although 
the Union army outnumbered his, two to one, defeated Hooker* 
at Chancellorsville, ten miles southwest of Fredericksburg, May 
2nd and 3rd, before Sedgwick arrived, and then turned and de¬ 
feated Sedgwick’s division, forcing it to recross the river, t 

Gloom in the North. This was the second disastrous de¬ 
feat of the Army of the Potomac within a period of six months. 
The Union soldiers were just as brave and fought just as well as 
the Confederates, but they needed a leader who could cope with 
such able generals as Lee and Jackson in 
planning and doing. Many began to 
doubt the ability of the North to subdue 
the South. For the Union cause the 
days following this battle were the dark¬ 
est of the war, but in the midst of this 
gloom and despair, Lincoln, planning to 
prosecute the war with vigor, issued a 

Star, and Bars," 1861. for 100 000 more tr00ps . 

Lee’s Second Invasion of the North. 

“On to Washington!” became the cry 
of the South after the two great vic¬ 
tories at Fredericksburg and Chancellors¬ 
ville. They hoped to invade the North, 
win another great victory on northern 
soil, and then dictate terms of peace. 
Lee heeded the cry. He left Fredericks¬ 
burg June 3rd, with eighty thousand of the best troops that 
ever served under the stars and bars, marched down the Sherv- 
andoah Valley, crossed Maryland, and pushed rapidly into Penn¬ 
sylvania toward Harrisburg. General Hooker hurried north to 
defend Washington and drive the enemy from Union soil. At 

* While General Hooker was on the portico of a house, directing the battle, a cannon¬ 
ball struck the pillar by which he was standing, and rendered him unconscious for some 
time. 

t Stonewall Jackson, by a circuitous route, surprised the unprotected Union right about 
6 p. m., and put it to flight. This, the most noted of all Jackson’s brilliant achievements, 
was his last. That night, after the battle, while he and his staff were reconnoitering the 
Federal lines, they were mistaken for Union cavalry, and a volley fired at them by his own 
men resulted in the death of Jackson. 



Confederate Flags. 



Campaigns of the Civil War. 


375 



Gen. George G. Meade. 


Frederick, Maryland, he was relieved of the command, and 
General George G. Meade succeeded him, June 28, 1863. 

Battle of Gettysburg, July 1st, 

2nd and 3rd, 1863. Meade followed 
Lee into Pennsylvania with 90,000 men. 

The advance of the two armies unex¬ 
pectedly met at the village of Gettys¬ 
burg, July 1st, and there began the 
greatest battle of the war. The Union 
forces, although at first greatly out¬ 
numbered, fought stubbornly to check 
the Confederates until more Union 
troops could arrive. Gradually, the 
Federal troops were forced back through Gettysburg with 
a loss of 5,000 prisoners. Both Meade and Lee prepared 
for a decisive battle. All night under the light of the full 
moon and during the next morning the scattered commands 
of the two armies raced for 
the chosen field. Meade 
formed his battle-line along 
Cemetery Ridge (see map); 
the north end resting on 
Culp’s Hill, the south on 
Little Round Top. Lee 
placed his army along Semi¬ 
nary Ridge, lying about a 
mile west of Cemetery Ridge 
and parallel to it. On July 
2nd Lee made two furious 
assaults upon the Union 
lines: one on the right, at 
Culp’s Hill, the other on 
the left, at Little Round 
Top. The Confederates 
pressed up the slopes of Little Round Top, but after a fierce 
hand-to-hand fight were driven back, leaving the Union troops, 
in possession of the coveted hill. 



Gettysburg Field. 







376 


History of the United States .J 


On the third day Lee planned to break the Union center. 
The forenoon was spent in preparation for the final effort. 
About one o’clock one hundred and thirty Confederate cannon 
opened fire upon the center of the Union line. Meade re¬ 
sponded with eighty guns. For two hours the fiercest cannon 
duel ever fought on the American continent shook the hills 
about Gettysburg. Suddenly the cannonade ceased. Lee, 
thinking the opportune moment had come, sent General Pick¬ 
ett with 17,000 men, the flower and pride of the Confederate 
army, to break through the center and sweep the Union army 
from the field. Forward they came in three columns across 
an open plain. The Union cannon on the crest of the hill and 
the long line of riflemen opened a deadly fire upon the advanc¬ 
ing columns. On they came, their lines growing thin, but still 
they came, at terrible sacrifice, to the very muzzles of the Union 
guns. A desperate hand-to-hand struggle ensued. The Union 
columns rushed upon them from every side, and drove their 
shattered forces from the field. The Union victory was com¬ 
plete. The loss of life was frightful. Nearly 50,000 men 
were dead or wounded on the field, about one-half on each side. 
Besides these, 6,000 Confederates were taken prisoners. 

The defeat of Lee at Gettysburg was sad news for the South, 
made doubly sad next day by the surrender of Vicksburg and 
Pemberton’s whole army (July 4, 1863). This was the be¬ 
ginning of the eild. After this Lee made no more invasions 
of the North, for he was compelled to act wholly on the de¬ 
fensive in an effort to save his army. 

Retreat of Lee. Lee withdrew his defeated army across 
the Potomac and up the Shenandoah Valley, and Meade slowly 
followed east of the mountains to Culpeper Court House and 
Brandy Station. Both armies settled down to a period of rest 
and inactivity—the Confederates on the south side of the 
Rapidan river, and the Union army some distance north of it. 

The scene of war was transferred to southeast Tennessee. 
Lee sent Longstreet to aid Bragg at Chickamauga, and Hooker 
was afterward sent from Meade’s army to aid Grant at Chatta¬ 
nooga. (See page 358.) 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 377 t 

Volunteering and Drafting— In the North. There 
were two ways to raise soldiers for the war—volunteering and 
drafting: the first was used throughout the war; the second, 
only when not enough volunteers responded to the call. The 
first draft or Conscription Act was passed by Congress in 1863. 
An enrollment was made of the names of all able-bodied men 
(with stated exceptions) between the ages of twenty and thirty- 
five years, and unmarried men to the age of forty-five. From 
this list a certain per cent was drawn by lot. Each man 
drafted was required to join the army, or to produce a substi¬ 
tute, or pay $300 to the government.* 

In the South. Drafting in the South began as early as 
1862, and included all white men between the ages of eighteen 
and forty-five. Before the end of the war, boys of sixteen 
and seventeen and men from forty-five to sixty were required 
to enlist for a “reserve home guard.” This taking of both 
youth and old age into the service led General Butler to re¬ 
mark, “The Confederates are robbing both the cradle and the 
grave.” 

At the close of the war there were over two and one-half 
million names enrolled from which to fill up the Union armies, 
while the South had used almost every available man, and no 
longer could fill up the depleted ranks. 

Opposition to the War. There were a number of persons 
in the North called “Copperheads,” who opposed the war from 
the beginning. For a time they feared to say much in oppo¬ 
sition to it, but finally became bolder, and denounced the. war 
and the way it was conducted. The most bitter opposition 
occurred in New York City. A mob rose in arms, July 13, 1863, 
stopped the draft for several days, burned buildings, attacked 
police, and killed about a hundred persons, mostly negroes. 
Troops were hurried to the scene, several hundred of the rioters 
were.killed, and order was restored. 

Presidential Election, 1864. The election of 1864 was one 
of the most critical in the history of the Nation. People in the 
North were divided on the question of continuing the war and 


* In July, 1864, the provision allowing them to pay $300 was repealed. 


378 


History of the United States. 


on reelecting Lincoln as President. Objections to Lincoln 
came from two sources : those who opposed the war and wanted 
peace at whatever cost, and those who wanted the war pushed 
with greater vigor. These dissensions among the people in 
the North and the danger of foreign intervention in behalf 
of the South added greatly to the difficulties confronting the 
administration. The task thus resting upon Lincoln was most 
stupendous. 

The Radical Republicans agreed in the main with the 
Lincoln Republicans on the preservation of the Union and on 
the abolition of slavery. But they also demanded that the 
war be carried on vigorously, and “that the lands of the rebels 
be confiscated” and “be distributed among the soldiers and 
actual settlers.” They nominated John C. Fremont, but he 
declined the nomination and recommended that his followers 
support Lincoln. 

The Democratic Party nominated General George B. Mc¬ 
Clellan. The platform declared that, as four years of war had 
failed to restore the Union, “justice, humanity, liberty and 
public welfare demanded that immediate efforts be made for 
a cessation of hostilities.” McClellan did not indorse either 
the letter or the spirit of the platform, but said in his formal 
acceptance: “The Union must be preserved at all hazards.” 
His attitude on the war and the platform led many war Demo¬ 
crats to vote for him who would otherwise have supported 
Lincoln. 

The Union Republican Party was made up of Republicans 
and Democrats. It renominated Abraham Lincoln, and de¬ 
manded the preservation of the Union, the abolition of slavery, 
and the pushing of the war to a speedy close. Andrew John¬ 
son of Tennessee, a war Democrat and Union man, was named 
for Vice-President. The great majority of the northern people 
had confidence in Lincoln’s management of the war, and he was 
reelected by a majority of 400,000 votes. Only three states 
cast their electoral votes against him: Delaware, Kentucky, 
and New Jersey. 

Grant in Command, May, 1864. Grant’s brilliant vie- 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


379 



Gen. Philip Sheridan. Ge-n. Ulysses S. Grant. Gen. William T. Sherman. 

The only men in the United States who have held the rank of General. 

tories in the West had attracted the attention of the nation 
He was looked upon as the man best fitted to lead the armies 
to victory. He was accordingly made General-in-Chief of all 
the Union armies, with the rank of Lieutenant-General.* All 
the armies, East and West, moved by his orders. During the 
first three years of the war the various armies acted independ¬ 
ently, thus enabling the Confederates to reinforce points of 
attack by withdrawing from points not attacked. Instead of 
remaining at Washington as Halleck had done, he made his 

* Washington was the only man before this time who had held the rank of Lieutenant- 
General. Scott was Brevet Lieutenant-General. The descending order of military rank 
is: General, Lieutenant-General, Major-General, and Brigadier-General. The rank of 
General had never been conferred on anyone before the war or during the war; but at the 
close, this high title was conferred upon Grant, for the distinguished service he had rendered 
the nation. After he became President, the rank was given to Sherman, and later to 
Sheridan. Since Sheridan’s death, the highest rank in the army has been Lieutenant- 
General. 














380 


History of the United States. 


headquarters in the field, with the Army of the Potomac, re¬ 
taining Meade as chief in command of the army. 

Grant’s Plans. Grant met Sherman in the spring of 1864 
and formed plans to prosecute the war with greater vigor. 
The Confederates had only two chief centers of power left, 
Richmond and Atlanta. Lee had about 62,000 troops on the 
south bank of the Rapidan, and J. E. Johnston had about 70,- 
000 troops at Dalton, Georgia, near Chattanooga. Grant 
directed Butler to operate against Richmond on the south side 
of the James river; he ordered Sherman “to move against 
Johnston’s army, to break it up, and to penetrate the interior 
of the enemy’s country, inflicting all the damage possible”; 
and to Meade he said: “Lee’s army is your objective point. 
Wherever Lee goes, there you will go.” All armies were to 
move against the Confederates, May 1st, with such energy that 
neither Lee nor Johnston could spare a man to reinforce the 
other. 

SHERMAN’S MARCH. 

Sherman’s Movement for Atlanta. On the very day that 
Grant set out to crush Lee and take Richmond, General Sher¬ 
man began the campaign to defeat Johnston and capture 
Atlanta, then an important railroad center, with factories, 
foundries and shops for making supplies for the Confederate 
armies. Johnston was entrenched at Dalton, and Sherman set 
out from Chattanooga May 5, 1864. Both Johnston and Sher¬ 
man were able generals and conducted a skillful campaign. 

The entire march was a series of skirmishes and battles. En¬ 
gagements took place at Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Moun¬ 
tain. By a series of flank movements Sherman drew the enemy 
from position to position until within sight of Atlanta. John¬ 
ston refused to fight unless his army was behind intrenchments. 
This policy was distasteful to Jefferson Davis, who removed 
him from command and put General J. B. Hood in his place. 
Hood proved quite as rash as he was brave. Immediately upon 
taking command he made three furious attacks on the Union 
army near Atlanta, July 20th, 22nd and 28th, with great dis- 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


381 



Tell of Sherman’s march from Chattanooga to Atlanta; to the Sea; to Raleigh. Give 
objects, battles and results. Tell of Hood’s movement to Nashville. 


aster to his command.* He retired to the fortifications at 
Atlanta, but abandoned the citj r , September 2nd, to avoid 
the fate of Pemberton at Vicksburg. Atlanta, “The Gate City 
of the South,” was captured, but Hood’s army, now numbering 
only 40,000, had escaped. 

Hood’s Retreat. Soon after his defeat at Atlanta, Hood, 
with the hope of drawing Sherman’s army out of Georgia, turned 
northward, destroying the railroad over which the Union army 
got supplies. Sherman followed to the northern part of the 
state, but could not overtake Hood, who, as Sherman said, 
“could twist and turn like a fox’s tail and wear out any army.” 
So, sending General George H. Thomas to look after Hood, 
Sherman turned about to begin his march to the sea. 


* The Confederate loss was 18,000 men; Union loss, 7,000. 








382 


History of the United States. 


Battles of Franklin and Nashville. General Thomas 
moved through Tennessee, concentrating his army at Nash¬ 
ville. Here he collected about 55,000 men to confront Hood, 
whose army, including 10,000 cavalry under General Nathan 
B. Forrest, now numbered 50,000. A grave responsibility 
rested with General Thomas. His defeat not only would 
have placed the Confederates in control of the Southwest, but 
would have destroyed the effect of Sherman’s march to the 
sea. But Thomas was equal to the occasion. He sent Gen¬ 
eral John M. Schofield with two corps to retard the advance of 
the enemy. In a desperate fight at Franklin, November 30, 
1864, Hood was repulsed with heavy loss, but Schofield re¬ 
treated to Nashville to join the main army. Hood followed, 
and laid siege to the place. But on December 15th, Thomas, 
while threatening Hood’s right wing, fell heavily on his left, 
driving it from the field. The next day the battle was re¬ 
newed ; and by night the enemy was routed and in full flight. 
The battered army fled south, closely pursued by Thomas as 
far as the Tennessee river. The remnants of Hood’s army were 
taken to Tupelo, where General Johnston again took com¬ 
mand. 

Sherman’s March to the Sea. Sherman destroyed all 
foundries and factories at Atlanta, and required all residents 
to move either north or south as their 
sympathies led them. When appealed 
to by the mayor he said: “War is cru¬ 
elty, and you cannot refine it. You 
might as well appeal against the thun¬ 
der-storm as against the terrible hard¬ 
ships of war.” He proposed to make 
it more terrible yet to the South by 
marching his 60,000 veterans from At¬ 
lanta to the Sea, living on the country 

Gen. William T. Sherman. i , , ... 

as he went, destroying railroads, mills, 
factories, and everything that could help support the Con¬ 
federate armies. 

November 15, 1864, he severed all communications with the 



Campaigns of the Civil War. 


383 


North. Marching in four columns and covering a strip sixty 
miles wide, he devastated the country. Great foraging parties 
went forth each morning like armies of hungry locusts, scour¬ 
ing the country far and wide for anything that could be eaten 
by man or beast, returning in the evening with cattle, hogs, 
horses, fowls, and wagon-loads of provisions. Miles of rail¬ 
road were torn up, the ties burned, the rails heated and twisted 
so the roads could not be repaired. The South could offer 
very little resistance to the advancing columns of “ Yankees,” 
Not a soldier sent or received a letter or message from the time 
the army left Atlanta until it reached Savannah.* After the 
capture of the city, December 22, 1864, Sherman sent this 
graphic dispatch to Lincoln: “I beg to present you as a 
Christmas present the city of Savannah, with 150 heavy guns 
and plenty of ammunition; also about 25,000 bales of cotton.” f 

March through the Carolinas. After a month of rest 
at Savannah the great army, with its train of 2,500 wagons, 
set out for a march of over 400 miles north. Rain, mud and 
the crossing of many rivers made the journey more difficult 
than the march to the sea, which was made parallel to the 
rivers and in fine weather. Columbia, the capital of South 
Carolina, was taken without a struggle, February 17. Charles¬ 
ton, with its fateful Fort Sumter, was evacuated next day 
by General Hardee, who with his army of 14,000 men went 
north to join a formidable force which was being organized 
to oppose Sherman, with Johnston in command. That able 
officer attacked Sherman at Averysboro (March 15), and Ben- 
tonville (March 19), but was repulsed in both battles, and with 
Sherman in pursuit retreated through Goldsboro to Raleigh. 

ARMY OF THE POTOMAC—Continued. 

Battle of the Wilderness, May 5th and 6th, 1864. The 

Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan May 4th, and met 
Lee’s army near Chancellorsville, in a woods and dense thicket 

* The distance in a straight line from Chattanooga to Atlanta is 100 miles; from At¬ 
lanta to Savannah, 240 miles. 

t The message was taken by boat, December 22, to Fortress Monroe, then telegraphed 
to Washington, and reached Lincoln on Christmas Eve. 


384 


History of the United States. 


of tangled underbrush called the Wilderness. A hard battle 
ensued, lasting two days (May 5th and 6th). Lee retreated 
to his intrenchments and Grant moved toward Richmond, 
expecting to draw Lee out of the Wilderness and compel him 
to fight in the open. When the Union soldiers saw that Grant 
was pushing on toward Richmond they burst into wild shouts 
of delight. In this “Overland Campaign”* toward Richmond 
Grant made a series of assaults on Lee’s army, and then by 
flank movement drew him from his fortifications and finally 
reached Richmond. 

Spottsylvania Court House (May 9th-12th) . By a rapid 

march over a direct route, Lee reached Spottsylvania ahead 
of Grant and intrenched his army. Here there was hard 
fighting for several days (May 9th-12th). So fierce was the 
encounter at one place, that it was called the “bloody angle.” 
During the battle Grant sent his famous dispatch to Halleck, 
in which he proposed “to fight it out on this line if it takes all 
summer.” It did take all summer, and all winter, too. 

Co-operative Movements. On May 8th, General Philip 
H. Sheridan began a raid toward Richmond, defeating the Con¬ 
federate cavalry under J. E. B. Stuart, and returning to Grant’s 
army in two weeks, after destroying railroads, stores, and sup¬ 
plies. At the same time General Butler, in command at For¬ 
tress Monroe, threatened Richmond from the east. 

North Anna and Cold Harbor (May-June). Another 
flank movement brought the armies together at North Anna 
River (May 23rd). Lee had fortified his position to such ad¬ 
vantage that Grant again moved forward, only to find his 
way blocked at Cold Harbor, ten miles from Richmond. Again 
Grant attacked Lee’s strongly fortified position (June 1st and 
3rd), but was repulsed with heavy losses. This bloody battle 
was the end of the series of terrific assaults upon the intrenched 
Confederate army. Grant had lost 60,000 men in the cam¬ 
paign. Fighting behind breastworks, Lee’s losses were little 
more than half that number. 

* McClellan’s advance on Richmond was by water, Grant’s by land; hence the name, 
“Overland Campaign.” 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


385 


Movement on Petersburg. Grant next crossed the Janies 
river and attempted to capture Petersburg, an important rail¬ 
road center about twenty-two miles south of Richmond. But 
Lee rapidly moved forces into the defenses of Petersburg, and 
prepared to make a final, desperate stand there and at Rich¬ 
mond, while Grant settled down to a siege of the cities. 

Early’s Raid North. Hoping to draw Grant from Rich¬ 
mond and Petersburg, Lee, in July, sent General Early with 
20,000 troops for an invasion of the North. Dashing up the 
Shenandoah Valley, he crossed the mountains into Maryland 
toward Washington, and defeated a smaller force under Gen¬ 
eral Lew Wallace near Frederick. He was within six miles 
of Washington, and then, continuing his raid northwest, burned 
the town of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. 

Sheridan’s Raid. General Philip Sheridan was sent to 
protect the North and cope with the invaders. He defeated 
Early’s army at Winchester, September 19, 1864, after a hard- 
fought battle, and again at Fisher’s Hill, three days later. 
Instructions were sent to Sheridan to lay waste the rich and 
fertile valley of the Shenandoah, that it might no longer be 
open to Confederate raids and furnish supplies for their armies. 
Sheridan burned barns and 
mills, destroyed or carried 
off grain and forage, and. 
drove away a large amount 
of stock. So completely 
was the valley devastated, 
that it was said “a crow 
flying over the valley had 
to carry a knapsack with 
rations, to live.” 

Cedar Creek. Sheridan 
was called to Washington 
on official business. During 
his absence, General Early, after being reinforced, surprised 
the Union army at Cedar Creek early in the morning of Octo¬ 
ber 19th, and drove it in confusion toward Winchester, where 



Sheridan’s Ride. 


386 


History of the United States. 


Sheridan had spent the night on his return from Washington. 
The booming of cannon told him of battle. He rode in haste 
to his army, and, dashing along the lines, waved his cap in 
the air and shouted, “We are all right! Never mind, boys — 
we’ll whip them yet!” General Wright, who commanded in 
his absence, was already re-forming the broken lines. The re¬ 
sult of Sheridan’s appearance was like magic. The troops 
rallied and turned defeat into a famous victory. Early was 
driven from the valley and Sheridan soon went to rejoin 
Grant, who had invested Richmond and Petersburg. 

Siege of Richmond and Petersburg. The siege of Rich¬ 
mond and Petersburg lasted from June, 1864, to April, 1865. 
During this time Grant kept Lee constantly occupied by strik¬ 
ing heavy blows upon his lines—now here, now there, by 
threatening at one point and attacking at another, and sending 
the cavalry on raids to cut off supplies and recruits. Day by 
day Lee saw his army wearing away faster than the recruits 
built it up; but Grant’s heavy losses were made good by new 
troops. Lee felt the Union lines tighten their grip week by 
week. In vain did he try to beat back the besieging army or 
break through its lines. He made a desperate attack at Fort 
Steadman (March 25, 1865), with a heavy loss. At Five Forks, 
he was again defeated (April 1, 1865), with a loss of 5,000 
prisoners. He saw the city was doomed, and telegraphed from 
Petersburg to Jefferson Davis: “My lines are broken in three 
places. Richmond must be evacuated this evening.” Con¬ 
federate officers, hastily gathering their records and papers, 
escaped southward under cover of the night. 

Retreat, and Surrender of Lee at Appomattox, April 9, 
1865. On the night of the 2nd of April, Lee abandoned Rich¬ 
mond and Petersburg and moved westward, hoping to join 
Johnston’s army before complete disaster should overtake him. 
The Union troops entered the city the next morning, and soon 
were in pursuit of Lee’s army, making frequent attacks upon 
the rear and flank. At Deatonsville Ewell’s division-of 7,000 
was cut off and captured. Lee’s army, once the pride of the 
South, now presented a pitiable sight; half-starved and worn 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


387 


out, they trudged along, but many, too weak to march, dropped 
by the way. Sheridan was sent ahead with the cavalry to cut 
oft the retreat and hold the army in check. The infantry has¬ 
tened to the rear of the cavalry, which was then moved to both 
flanks of the Confederates. When Lee saw that he was com¬ 
pletely surrounded and helpless, he surrendered, April 9, 1865, 
at Appomattox Court House, seventy-five miles west of Rich¬ 
mond. 

Grant’s terms were most generous. Lee was allowed to keep 
his sword; officers their side-arms, and men their horses, which 
they would need, as Grant said, “to work on the farms for 
spring plowing.” Twenty-five thousand rations were dis¬ 
tributed to famishing ■men immediately after the surrender. 
Officers were required to sign a parole for the men, allowing 
them to return to their homes to resume the peaceful pursuits 
of life, and pledging them never again to take up arms against 
the United States. 

The surrender of Lee brought a request to Sherman from 
Johnston for terms of surrender. April 26, 1865, while his 
army was at Greensboro, North Carolina, he turned over 36,000 
prisoners to Sherman on the same terms which Grant had given 
Lee, seventeen days before. 

Assassination of Lincoln. Soon after the nation began to 
rejoice over the surrender of Lee and the approach of peace, it 
was plunged into the depth of grief by the sudden assassination 
of President Lincoln. On Friday night, April 14th, exactly 
four years after the fall of Fort Sumter, the President, ac¬ 
companied by his wife and two guests, while seeking relief from 
the trials of his office at Ford’s Theatre, was shot by John Wilkes 
Booth,* an actor in sympathy with the South, though the South 
did not sympathize with his deed. The assassin leaped from 
the box in which Lincoln sat to the stage below, shouting “Sic 
semper tyrannis! ” (Ever thus to tyrants.) Dashing to the rear 
of the building, though his leg was badly injured by the leap, he 

* Booth belonged to a band of assassins who planned to kill the President and other 
officers of high standing. Secretary Seward, sick in bed, was attacked and stabbed near 
to death by Lewis Powell. Powell, Mrs. Mary E. Surratt, in whose house the plot was 
formed, and two other conspirators, were hanged. 


388 


History of the United States. 


mounted a horse and escaped. He was pursued, however, and 
shot in a barn in Maryland after refusing to surrender. The 
President was taken to a private house across the street from 
the theatre, where every care was given him; but early next 
morning, surrounded by his prostrated family and official 
friends, he died. 

Lincoln blended a high moral sense with a strong intellect. 
His patience, kindness and magnanimity endeared him to the 
hearts of the people; his skill and tact in guiding the ship of 
state safely through ^he violent tempests of the Civil War 
mark him as a truly great man. In his death-chamber Edwin 
M. Stanton, the great Secretary of War, paid a tribute to the 
President, which expresses the sentiment of the American 
people: ' “Now he belongs to the ages. There lies the most 
perfect ruler of men the world has ever seen.” 

For America his name is linked with that of Washington: 
one, the “savior and founder”; the other, the “preserver and 
liberator.” 

The Return to Peace. The war w^s closed, slavery abol¬ 
ished, the nation saved, and the day of rejoicing at hand. The 
vast armies of the Union were to be brought to Washington to 
march in a last grand review before going to their homes to 
take up the peaceful pursuits of life. Vast crowds of people 
gathered in the Capital to witness the grand spectacle. The 
new President, members of Congress, and hundreds of dis¬ 
tinguished citizens occupied seats of honor. For two days 
(May 23rd and 24th) the war-scarred veterans paraded the 
streets of Washington. No fear of saber'or rattle of musketry 
disturbed them there. Beneath the starry flags, rent and tom 
by the conflict of battle, they made a last march from the dan¬ 
gers, hardships and cruelties of a soldier life to the blessed pur¬ 
suits of private citizens. 

No thronging multitudes rejoicing over the preservation of 
the Union and shouting praises for the heroes of the war, wel¬ 
comed the return of the southern troops; but sad and crest¬ 
fallen they went to their homes, to make the best of their “lost 
cause.” 


Campaigns of the Civil War. 


389 


By November, 1,800,000 Union soldiers, in response to the 
last roll-call, were mustered out of service. 

The Grand Army of the Republic. The disbandonment 
of the Union army inspired Major B. F. Stephenson, of the 
Fourteenth Illinois Infantry, to form an organization of ex- 
Union soldiers known as the Grand Army of the Republic. 

April 6, 1866, Major Stephenson organized the first post, 
at Decatur, Illinois, basing its membership upon an honorable 
service in the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps of the United 
States during the late Rebellion, and upon an honorable dis¬ 
charge therefrom, binding its members by the motto—“Frater¬ 
nity, Charity, and Loyalty.” 

The organization of posts throughout Illinois followed rapidly, 
and July 12th, 1866, the Department of Illinois was organized 
with General John M. Palmer as Department Commander. 
Major Stephenson assumed the national organization and 
issued orders as Commander-in-Chief. November 20, 1866, 
a national organization was perfected at Indianapolis. Rules, 
regulations and a ritual were adopted. The second National 
Encampment was held in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania, January 15, 1868, and General John A. Logan 
was elected Commander-in-Chief, and he reorganized the order. 
He issued an order appointing May 30, as Memorial Day, for 
the purpose of decorating the graves of ex-Union soldiers 
and sailors in memory of their patriotic services. This day 
is now a legal holiday in nearly all northern and western states. 
The Grand Army of the Republic had in 1868 about 1,500,000 
members. 

The Woman’s Relief Corps is an auxiliary spciety of the 
Grand Army of the Republic, and was organized in 1879 from 
the various societies of women working along patriotic and 
charitable lines. All loyal women of good moral character r 
are eligible to membership. It has a membership of over 500,- 
000. It also encourages patriotic education. 

The Ladies of the Grand Army of the Republic was 
organized in 1881. Only the mothers, wives, daughters, sis¬ 
ters and female blood relations of all honorably discharged 


390 


History of the United States. 


ex-Union soldiers, sailors and marines, if loyal and of good 
moral character, are eligible to membership. The organization 
has 300,000 members, who are devoted to the promotion of 
patriotism and patriotic education through their local, State 
and National organizations. 

The Sons of Veterans, as their title implies, are composed 
exclusively of the sons of honorably discharged veterans of 
the Union army. It is subject and auxiliary to the Grand 
Army of the Republic. 

The veterans of the Civil War are rapidly passing away, and 
soon “taps” will be sounded for the last survivor, leaving as 
a legacy the grandest nation on earth. 


Suggestions for Review. 

Tell a connected story of the movements of the Army of the Potomac, 
giving plans, battles, and results. Give a similar account of Sherman’s 
campaigns, including the campaigns of Hood and Thomas in Tennessee. 
Name all the commanders of the Army of the Potomac. Name three of 
the most important battles -of the war, and give reasons why they were 
important. Name eight Confederate generals, telling what they did. 
Name ten Union generals, telling of their service. What is meant by 
volunteering? Drafting? Was there any opposition to the war in the 
North? Tell of the death of Lincoln. What were the results of the war? 


CHAPTER XXXII. 


COST OF THE WAR AND FINANCES OF 
THE WAR. 

THE COST OF THE WAR. 

Loss of Life. The cost of the war in blood and treasure was 
enormous. Three hundred and sixty thousand Union soldiers 
were killed in battle or died of wounds or disease.* The death 
list of the Confederate army was probably as great; so the 
total loss of life, North and South, reached 700,000 men. In 
addition to this, there were hundreds of thousands who were 
crippled or disabled for life. 

The suffering on the field of battle or from prison filth and 
disease is beyond the power of words to tell. The grief of dear 
ones at home for the loss of father, husband or brother, com¬ 
bined with the suffering of the prisoners and the wounded, and 
the privations in camp and on the march, cast a cloud of gloom 
throughout the land. Only the thoughtful and sympathetic 
of this generation can understand the trials and hardships of 
those who went through the Civil War, but none of us can 
really share in the grief endured. 

Sanitary and Christian Commissions. To relieve the 
suffering and to aid the government in caring for soldiers, a 
body of noble men and women formed an organization known as 
the Sanitary Commission. By its agency several millions of 
dollars in money and many millions’ worth of supplies were 
collected and used to care for the unfortunate soldier, his widow 
and orphan. The Commission furnished nurses, physicians, 
medicines, ambulances, and hospital cars. Its hospitals and 

* Of this number, 67,000 were killed in battle; 43,000 died of wounds; 230,000 died of 
disease and other causes, of whom 30,000 died in southern prisons. There were 2,265 
engagements, counting every form of conflict, and 330 battles in which the Union loss was 
over 100 men. 


391 


History of the United States. 


tents followed the armies on the march, and were found upon 
every battle-field; and its corps of patriotic workers gave aid 
and comfort to the sick, wounded and needy, and in a hundred 
different ways alleviated pain, suffering and distress. 

The Christian Commission was organized to look after the 
spiritual as well as the physical welfare of the armies. Re¬ 
ligious meetings were held; and Bibles, magazines and books 
were furnished, in addition to food, clothing, and nurses. 

Where there was want, sickness and suffering in army life, 
the agents of the Sanitary and Christian Commissions, like good 
Samaritans, extended the hand of aid and comfort. 

Destruction of Property. No correct estimate can be 
made of the value of the property destroyed during the war. It 
is certain, however, that the total was very great. Vast armies 
moved like destructive tornadoes over the states. Fields of 
ripened grain and growing crops were trodden under foot or 
eaten by hungry horses. Food and clothing were carried away. 
Horses, cattle and hogs were taken for the army; and mills, 
factories, foundries and railroads were destroyed. This form 
of the burden fell more heavily upon the South than upon the 
North, as the seat of the war was principally in southern states. 

To the southern planter the loss was doubly heavy. His 
slaves were freed, his live-stock went to supply the armies, and 
the Confederate money received was worthless. The blockade 
ruined his markets and raised the prices of all the things he had 
to buy. If he lived to return to his plantation he found little 
but the soil and neglected premises. He had to start life anew 
and upon changed conditions. Counting the average price of a 
slave $300, the total loss to the South in slaves alone was 
$ 1 , 200 , 000 , 000 . 

Cost in Money. The expenses of the government the year 
before the war, ending July 1, 1861, were $66,000,000. The 
first year of the war the expenses were $469,000,000; the last 
year $1,295,000,000. The average daily expenses of the last 
year amounted to $3,000,000, which is more than the total cost 
of running the government a whole year when Washington be¬ 
came President. The total amount expended by the govern- 


The Cost and Finances of the War. 


393 


ment in the four years of the war was $3,348,000,000,* which 
was more than the total expense from Washington’s to Lincoln’s 
administrations. Of this vast sum the government raised 
$667,000,000 by customs and internal taxes, during the war. 
The balance of the money was raised by loans. This balance, 
which at the close of the war amounted to $2,808,000,000, was 
the debt of the government. The interest on the public debt 
has amounted to millions, and the pensions granted to soldiers, 
sailors and their widows and orphans, represent a total greater 
than was the original cost of the war. 

FINANCES OF THE WAR. 

Raising Money. The enormous amount of money needed 
to carry on the war was derived from three sources: 

1. Tariff Duties. 

2. Internal Revenue. 

3. Loans. 

Tariff Duties. Morrill Tariff. An act called the Morrill 

Tariff was passed, 1861, increasing the duty on imported goods. 
These rates were increased several times during the war, and by 
this means $300,000,000 was raised in the four years from 1861 
to 1865. f 

Internal Revenue.}; A heavy tax was laid on every gallon 
of liquor distilled, and on manufactured tobacco. Every com¬ 
pany, corporation and business was taxed. The butcher paid 
30c. for every beef, 10c. for every hog, and 5c. for every sheep 
that he killed. Every trade, occupation and profession, except 
the ministry of the gospel, paid a revenue to the government. 
Indeed, almost everything a man owned, ate, drank, bought, 
sold or did, was taxed. In August, 1861, a tax of 3 per cent was 

* To the South the cost was nearly $2,000,000,000. As they were in rebellion against 
the government and lost, their loans were never paid, and no national pensions have been 
granted to those who served in the Confederate army; but some of the southern states 
have granted small pensions to survivors and those who enlisted in those states. 

t $305,360,451, exact. 

| The internal revenue for 1862-63 w r as $37,640,787; for 1863-64, $109,741,134; for 
1864-65, $209,464,215; for 1865-66, $309,266,000. After the war closed, commerce and 
all forms of business expanded, bringing in the enormous income of $520,000,000 to the 
government in one year. 


394 


History of the United States. 


placed on all yearly incomes in excess of $800. This was in¬ 
creased in 1862; and in 1865 a tax of 5 per cent was laid on 
annual incomes between $600 and $5,000, and 10 per cent on 
those in excess of $5,000. The burden of taxation thus fell more 
heavily upon those who were best able to pay. 

Raising Money by Loans or on “the credit of the United 
States.” As the income from the tariff and the internal rev¬ 
enues was not sufficient to meet its expenses, the government 
raised the balance by selling bonds and by issuing paper money 
called “United States notes.” 

Bonds.* The bonds were promises by the government to 
pay a stated sum of money to the holder of the bond at the end 
of a certain number of years. The purchaser received interest 
on his investment, and at the end of the specified time the gov¬ 
ernment paid him the stated sum it had promised to pay in the 
bond. Over $1,000,000,000 was raised during the war by the 
sale of bonds. 

Paper Money. — United States Notes. The United States 
notes were of two kinds: those which bore interest and those 
which did not. The interest-bearing notes issued up to 1866 
amounted to $577,000,000. The noninterest-bearing notes were 
the “old demand notes,” or “greenbacks,” the “national bank 
notes,” and the “fractional currency.” 

Greenbacks. The “greenback” (so called from the color 
of its back) was a form of paper money, which was a legal tender 
in the payment of all debts, public or private, except duties on 
imports and interest on the public debt. The government 
authorized the issue of $450,000,000 of these notes, but they de¬ 
preciated very greatly during the war. At one time a greenback 
dollar passed for only thirty-five cents in gold, and these notes 
were never received at face value until the government (1875) 
agreed to redeem them in specie. 

National Bank Notes. Congress, in 1863, at the request 
of Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, established the 
still existing system of National Banks. Not less than five 

* Bonds were issued for ten, twenty, thirty, or forty years. Five-twenties were re¬ 
deemable at the end of five years and fell due in twenty. Interest was paid on bonds at 
the rate of five, six, or seven per cent. 


The Cost and Finances of the War. 


395 



persons could form a banking company, with authority to 
purchase United States bonds. The bank, by depositing these 

bonds with the United States 
Treasurer, received from that 
officer notes especially engraved 
for that bank, in an amount not 
to exceed 90 per cent of the value 
of the bonds on deposit. These 
bonds, deposited with the gov¬ 
ernment, make the bank notes good 
everywhere, even if the bank itself 
fails in business. This was a great 
improvement upon the old state 
bank system, for the failure of a 
state bank meant a total loss to those 
who held the bank’s notes. 

The passage of the National Bank 
Act had the twofold object of increas¬ 
ing the currency of the nation and of 
stimulating the sale of government 
bonds. A heavy tax on the paper 
money issued by the state banks led 
many of them to change from state to 
national banks, and compelled the 
others to cease issuing notes. 

Fractional Currency. On ac¬ 
count of the insufficient amount of 
gold and silver, both banks and the 
government were compelled to suspend 
specie payments during the war. Specie became more valua¬ 
ble than paper money, so gold and silver ceased to circulate. 
People hoarded it; that is, the gold coins, the silver dollars 
and 3, 5, 10, 25 and 50-cent pieces in silver were kept from 
circulation. This left the people without any change less than 
the paper dollar; so stamps and coppers were put into use. 
To remedy this condition, the Secretary of the Treasury, in 
March, 1863, began the issue of $50,000,000 worth of 5, 10, 


Fractional Currency used 

DURING AND AFTER THE ClVIL 

War (3, 5, 10, and 25-cent 
pieces). One-half the dimen¬ 
sions of the note. 










396 


History of the United States. 


25, and 50-cent paper bills.* These notes are no longer issued. 
They are now a greater novelty than the silver change was 
during the war. 

*They were sometimes called “ shinplaster3.” 


Suggestions for Review. 

Give an account of the cost of the war and the loss of life. What organi¬ 
zations were formed to relieve the suffering? How did the government 
raise money to meet the expenses of the war? Has all the money which 
was borrowed then been paid by the government? What is a national 
bank? How is it formed? Of what benefit is it? What was fractional 
currency? Which is more convenient and better for change—fractional 
currency, or fractional silver? Why? 


CHAPTER XXXIII. 

RECONSTRUCTION. 

Reconstruction. A great and difficult task now rested upon 
Congress and the President: that of rebuilding and reconstruct¬ 
ing the Union. For four years it had been rent asunder by 
the destructive forces of secession and a war—the fiercest and 
bloodiest in the annals of history. Many perplexing questions 
had to be settled. In what way should the seceded states be 
treated? Were they in or out of the Union? What should 
be done with the four million negroes set free? What punish¬ 
ment should be given to the Confederates for bringing on and 
maintaining the war? Who should be pardoned and who 
punished? What could be done to retrieve broken fortunes, 
repair almost irreparable injuries, bind the states together in 
amity, and develop a new national greatness? 

Freedman’s Bureau. Great crowds of slaves became camp- 
followers of the victorious Union armies in the South, and large 
numbers flocked to the towns and cities after the Emancipation 
Proclamation. These with many others were without means 
of support. The government organized a bureau in connection 
with the army to feed, clothe and care for the helpless negroes 
and other “refugees,”—the latter a class of poor whites driven 
from their homes because they favored the Union. 

The need for this humane work was even greater at the close 
of the war than during its progress. Congress in 1865, there¬ 
fore, established the Freedman’s Bureau, the duty of which 
was to look after the interests of former slaves; feed, clothe 
and shelter the needy; establish schools for them; assign to 
them abandoned lands, and in general protect them from in¬ 
justice and help them to care for themselves. President John¬ 
son vetoed the bill, but Congress passed it over his veto. 

The President and Congress held different views on several 

397 


398 


History of the United States. 


important issues, and this not only delayed the restoration of 
the southern states to the Union, but also led to a bitter quarrel 
between those representing these departments of Government. 

Lincoln’s Views of Reconstruction. After the great vic¬ 
tories at Fort Donelson, Shiloh, Vicksburg and New Orleans, 
Lincoln hoped to restore the conquered states to their former 
relations to the Union. He promised pardon to all persons 
(except certain classes) who would lay down their arms, and 
swear to support the Constitution and abide by the Emancipa¬ 
tion Proclamation. As soon as a number of persons in any 
state equal to one-tenth of those who voted at the election of 
1860 should take the required oath and organize a state govern¬ 
ment without slavery, Lincoln would recognize such common¬ 
wealth as one of the states of the Union. 

Arkansas, Tennessee and Louisiana complied with the plan; 
but Congress refused to seat their Senators and Representatives, 
and consequently no state was readmitted to the Union while 
the war lasted. Lincoln believed in extending the hand of 
welcome, without the spirit of resentment, to the defeated 
Confederates At a cabinet meeting on the last afternoon of 
his life he said:. “I hope there will be no persecution, no 
bloody work after the war is over. No one need expect me to 
take any part in hanging or killing 
these men [Confederates], even the 
worst of them. Enough lives have 
been sacrificed. We must extin¬ 
guish our resentment, if we expect 
harmony and union.” 

Andrew Johnson. Andrew 
Johnson, like Lincoln, was born 
and reared in poverty and accus¬ 
tomed to the hardships of life. He 
belonged to the “poor whites.” 
He taught himself to read and his 
wife taught him to write. Being 
ambitious and energetic, he advanced very rapidly, and held 
almost every office from alderman to President. He was 



Andrew Johnson. 



Reconstruction . 


399 


United States senator from Tennessee when the war broke out, 
and the only senator from the South who did not resign to 
join the Confederacy. He remained loyal to the Union, though 
a Democratic senator from a slave state. In recognition of 
this loyalty and of that of the great mass of the northern 
Democrats, he was nominated for Vice-President on the Re¬ 
publican ticket with Lincoln. On the death of Lincoln he be¬ 
came President, April 15, 1865. 

Johnson’s Policy. Johnson had little sympathy for the 
slaves or for the wealthy planters. He looked upon the seces¬ 
sion leaders as traitors, and at first wished them to be punished 
severely, but finally changed his mind and adopted Lincoln’s 
view of reconstruction. As Congress was not in session, he 
began to carry out his policy, which required the Confederate 
States before they could be admitted to full rights to the Union: 

1. To repeal their ordinances of secession. 

2. To declare their war debt null and void and promise never 
to pay it. 

3. To abolish slavery within their borders and ratify the 
Thirteenth Amendment. 

Throughout the South the blockade was raised, duties were 
collected, mails carried, temporary governors appointed, and 
cases tried in courts in the name of the United States. Con¬ 
ventions were held which repealed the ordinances of secession 
and framed new constitutions. State officers were elected by 
those who had been in rebellion. The legislatures declared the 
war debt null and void (except in South Carolina), and ratified 
the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery (except in Mis¬ 
sissippi). 

The Thirteenth Amendment.* The Thirteenth Amend¬ 
ment was an amendment to the Constitution which prohibited 
slavery in the United States or in any place subject to its rule. 
The Emancipation Proclamation had set the slaves free in 
those portions of the South which were in rebellion. It did 

* It was sent to the states in February, 1865, and was formally proclaimed part of the 
Constitution December 28, 1865. It was ratified by the legislatures of sixteen free and 
eleven slave states, making the necessary three-fourths of the thirty-six states. 


400 


History of the United States. 


not apply to the slave states which had remained loyal to the 
Union—Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware. No 
mention was made of the possible right to buy other slaves, 
nor would it prevent any future Congress from granting states 
the right to hold slaves. In order that slavery should be 
abolished forever in all states, this amendment was made a part 
of the Constitution, 1865. 

Legislation Against Freedmen. The people of the South 
believed the negroes, turned from slavery to freedom, would 
become idle, insolent, and dangerous. Without property, edu¬ 
cation, the habit of self-control or the means of subsistence, they 
would be a menace to the peace and rights of the whites. The 
legislatures accordingly began to pass laws, known as the 
“Black Codes,” intended to regulate and control the freedmen, 
but which seemed to the North to bring them back to a state of 
slavery. Colored orphans and minors without visible means of 
support were to be hired out until they became of age. All 
colored persons were to be employed under written contract. 
Any found without employment were declared vagrants, subject 
to arrest and fine. If unable to pay his fine, the judge could 
sentence him to work for a white man (preferably the former 
master), who was given the right to whip his servant. These 
laws aroused bitter opposition in the North, and it was largely 
on account of them that Congress refused to admit southern 
congressmen until the rights of the freedmen were fully pro¬ 
tected. 

Congressional Plan. The Republicans in general did not 
approve the President’s policy for restoring the seceded states 
to the Union, and when Congress met in December, 1865, it 
refused to sanction his actions in that regard. Before it would 
admit southern senators and representatives, Congress, as its 
plan of reconstruction, required the Confederate States— 

1. To repeal the ordinances of secession. 

2. To declare the Confederate war debt null and void. 

3. To abolish slavery and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment. 

4. To grant civil rights to the negro and ratify the Fourteenth 
Amendment. 


Reconstruction. 


401 


The Civil Rights Bill and the Fourteenth Amendment. 

The Civil Rights* Act guaranteed civil rights to all persons born 
in the United States, without regard to race or color. This gave 
the same rights to the negro as to the white. But a law enacted 
by one Congress may be repealed by another, and in order that 
these rights should never be withdrawn they were made a part 
of the Constitution, as the Fourteenth Amendment. 

In addition to granting civil rights to all persons, the Four¬ 
teenth Amendment provided for a reduction of the representa¬ 
tion in Congress of any state which refused to let the negro vote. 
Section three disqualified leading men in the South, who had 
taken part in the rebellion, from voting and holding office until 
these privileges should be restored to them by a two-thirds 
vote of Congress; and section four declared the war debt of the 
Confederate States illegal and void and that of the United 
States legal and valid. 

The Breach Widens between Congress and Johnson. 

The President, claiming that he had the right to restore the 
states to the Union, vigorously opposed the policy of Congress. 
Before the elections in the fall of 1866, he toured the country, 
speaking in support of his views and denouncing the members of 
Congress in most bitter and violent terms. He, however, in¬ 
jured himself more than he did his opponents, for in the election 
a large number of Republicans friendly to the plans of Congress 
were successful. 

Reconstruction Measures Carried by Military Rule. 

After giving the colored man the right to vote in the District of 
Columbia and the territories, Congress passed the Reconstruc¬ 
tion Act (March 2, 1867), which divided the ten southern states 
still out of the Union into five military districts. An army 
officer with troops at his command was placed over each dis¬ 
trict, with absolute power to rule and carry out the reconstruc¬ 
tion measures of Congress, f The state governments recognized 

* Civil rights are rights granted by the government for the protection of life, liberty 
and property. Political rights refer to the rights of voting and office-holding. Women 
and children have the former but not the latter, except that in a few states political rights 
have been granted to women. 

t About 20,000 troops were distributed at 134 posts in the South. Among other duties 
they had charge of registering voters and supervising elections. The Reconstruction Act 


402 


History of the United States. 


by Johnson were set aside and new ones provided for. Negroes 
were allowed to take part both in forming the new constitutions 
and in conducting the government, while many of their former 
masters were denied these rights by the third section of the 
Fourteenth Amendment. In each state delegates were elected 
to a convention to form a new constitution, which should grant 
freedmen the right to vote. If the constitution proved accept¬ 
able, and the legislature met the requirements of Congress, the 
states would then be allowed to send senators and represent¬ 
atives to Congress. 

Six states—North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Louis¬ 
iana, Alabama, and Arkansas—having met these requirements, 
were restored to the Union, June, 1868. 

The Tenure of Office Act, 1867.* On the same day that 
Congress passed the Reconstruction Act (March 2, 1867), it 
passed the Tenure of Office Act, which said that the President 
should not, without the consent of the Senate, remove any 
office-holder whose appointment had to be ratified by the Sen¬ 
ate.! This was done to prevent the President from removing 
important officials favorable to the congressional policy of 
reconstruction, for the purpose of appointing others in sympathy 
with his views. Johnson denied the right of Congress to make 
such a law, and soon disobeyed it. During the recess of Con¬ 
gress he suspended Stanton, Secretary of War, and appointed 
General Grant to the place. The Senate disapproved this 
change, and reinstated Stanton, but Johnson defied the Senate 
by appointing General Lorenzo Thomas as Secretary of War, 
and ordered him to seize the office by force. 

The wisdom and even the constitutionality of this act has 
always been questioned, and it was repealed in 1887. 

Impeachment of President Johnson. For violating the 

of March 2, 1867, was strengthened by a second act, March 23, 1867, and by a third, July 
19, 1867. 

* The Tenure of Office Act permitted the President to suspend an officer during the 
recess of Congress, but such suspension was to be reported to the Senate at its next meet¬ 
ing for final action. 

t There were two classes of officers: the more important, which were appointed by 
the President, had to be ratified by the Senate, but the minor positions were filled by the 
President without the consent of the Senate. 



Reconstruction. 


403 


Tenure of Office Act and other alleged offenses, the House of 
Representatives then brought articles of impeachment against 
the President, charging him with “high crimes and misde¬ 
meanors.” In his trial before the Senate able lawyers repre¬ 
sented both sides, and after a hearing lasting two months, 
thirty-five senators voted “guilty” and nineteen “not guilty.”* 
This was one less than the two-thirds necessary to convict. 
Thus *by the narrow margin of one vote was the President saved 
the dishonor of removal from office. 

Fifteenth Amendment (1870). The Fifteenth Amend¬ 
ment declared that the right to vote shall not be denied by any 
state “on account of race, color, or previous condition of servi¬ 
tude.” Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi and Texas, the states 
not yet readmitted, were required to vote for the Fifteenth 
Amendment before they were restored to the Union. The 
Thirteenth Amendment made the negro a freedman, the Four¬ 
teenth made him a citizen, and the Fifteenth opened a way to 
make him a voter. 

The French in Mexico, 1861-1867. In 1861, England, 
France and Spain jointly sent an armed force to Mexico to 
seize and hold her custom-houses until debts due them were 
paid. England and Spain soon withdrew their troops, but 
Napoleon III., Emperor of France, used this foothold to es¬ 
tablish French power in Mexico. He started a war with 
Mexico, defeated the troops of the Republic, and again set up a 
Mexican Empire (1862), with Maximilian, a brother of the 
Emperor of Austria, as ruler. The United States informed the 
French that this was a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. 
Napoleon, however, believing that the Civil War would disrupt 
the Union and that the Nation could not enforce its demands, 
paid no heed to these protests. 

When the war was over the United States took up the ques¬ 
tion and sent General Sheridan to the Mexican frontier with a 
large army. Napoleon then withdrew the French troops (1867), 
the empire was overthrown, and Maximilian was taken prisoner 
by the Mexicans, court-martialed, and shot. 

* More than two-thirds of the Senators were Republicans, but seven of them voted with 
the Democrats for acquittal. No other President has been impeached. 


404 


History of the United States. 


Purchase of Alaska, 1867. The United States purchased 
Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000. The territory 
comprises an area of 577,000 square miles, which is about 
two-thirds as large as all the states east of the Mississippi river. 
It lies chiefly within the region of perpetual ice and snow, but 
the ocean-currents moderate the climate of the coast so as to 
make it habitable and in parts profitably tillable. Many at 
the time thought that Secretary Seward had made a bad bar¬ 
gain. They ridiculed the idea of paying $7,200,000 for what 
they humorously called a “refrigerator” for the United States. 
But in a single year the value of the furs, fish, timber and gold 
taken from Alaska is many times as great as the total cost 
of the territory,* and its known coal-fields are among the rich¬ 
est in the world. 

Presidential Election, 1868. The main issue between the 
two parties in the campaign of 1868 were the reconstruction 
policy of Congress and the question of the payment of the 
United States bonds in gold. 

The Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour and Francis 
P. Blair, on a platform demanding full pardon for all engaged 
in the rebellion; insisting that where payment in gold had not 
been promised, the government pay its bonds in greenbacks; 
and opposing all land grants to railroads and corporations. 
The Republicans nominated Ulysses S. Grant and Schuyler 
Colfax on a platform encouraging foreign immigration, favor¬ 
ing the payment of the national debt in accordance with the 
letter and spirit of the laws under which it was contracted, and 
the removal of the political restrictions in the South “in the 
same measure as the spirit of disloyalty dies out.” Grant was 
elected President and Colfax Vice-President, each receiving 214 
electoral votes, and Seymour received 80. 

* The value of the gold shipped from Alaska to the United States in 1909 was $17,- 
782,493; the value of the fish in 1908 was $11,536,926. 










































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Reconstruction. 


405 


Suggestions for Review. 

What questions confronted Congress at the close of the war? What 
was the Freedmen’s Bureau? What were Lincoln’s views of reconstruc¬ 
tion? What three states early complied with Lincoln’s plan? Did Con¬ 
gress accept their representatives? What was Johnson’s policy? What 
three things were to be required of the seceded States in order to get back 
into the Union? What was the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu¬ 
tion? Tell of the legislation in the southern states against- the negro? 
What was the Congressional plan of reconstruction? What four things did 
Congress require of the southern states? What was the Fourteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution? When were the states reconstructed? 
What was the Tenure of Office Act? Tell of the impeachment of President 
Johnson. What was the Fifteenth Amendment? Where was the Monroe 
Doctrine violated during the Civil War? Tell of the purchase of Alaska. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

FROM GRANT TO GARFIELD. 


ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 

“ Carpet-Bag’ ’ Rule in the South. Many vexing prob¬ 
lems grew out of the changed political conditions in the South. 

Those who had ruled before the war 
were now without power in state 
affairs, and a new class, composed 
largely of northern white men and 
southern negroes, took control.* 
Freedmen who could neither read 
nor write were elected to the legis¬ 
lature. Some of the men who came 
from the North were sincere and 
honest, but many were political 
tricksters of the worst sort. They 
were called “carpet-baggers,” be¬ 
cause all they brought from the 
North was carried, it was said, in a carpet-bag or valise. 
By making the negroes believe that the southerners would 
pass laws, again making slaves of them, they won their votes; 
and when once elected to office they ran affairs for the benefit 
of themselves instead of in the interests of the people. Be¬ 
cause of the domination by designing northerners and ignorant 
negroes, the period was one of gross extravagance and cor¬ 
ruption. Large sums of money were appropriated for the con¬ 
struction of public buildings, railroads, and other public works, 
and much of this money went into the pockets of legisla¬ 
tors, contractors and politicians as “ graft.” In South Caro- 

* Those who came from the North were composed chiefly of two classes—those who were 
appointed to positions by the President and those who went South with the hope of profit¬ 
ing by the misfortunes of the southerners. 



406 



From Grant to Garfield. 


407 


lina the legislature spent $200,000 for furniture; while cigars, 
watermelons and liquors were furnished at the expense of the 
state. In Alabama the debt was increased $17,000,000 in four 
years. Taxes imposed by such wasteful expenditures became 
so burdensome that the people could not pay them. In Mis¬ 
sissippi alone 6,000,000 acres of land were sold at forced tax 
sales. 

The Kuklux Klan. To protect themselves from the evils 
of negro and “carpet-bag” rule, the whites formed secret 
societies, the most noted of which was the Kuklux Klan. The 
members began a campaign to prevent the negroes from voting 
and to make life for the “carpet-baggers” miserable. In 
the dead of night white-robed horsemen, making hideous noises, 
would appear at negro cabins, warning their occupants not to 
take any part in politics. Like ghosts they seemed to come from 
the land of spirits to avenge the death of Confederates and fill 
the freedmen with fear and dread. If any of the negroes or 
their white sympathizers became too bold and did not heed 
the warnings, they were whipped, driven away, or murdered. 
As the Kuklux Klan passed into the hands of the rougher 
and more lawless members, its acts became more violent. 
Even agents of the Freedman’s Bureau, teachers of freedmen, 
and judges of courts, not in sympathy with the lawlessness, 
suffered the penalty of death during this reign of terror. 

The “Force” Bills. The violent action of the Kuklux Klan 
led Congress to pass “Force” Bills (1870-1871) to protect the 
rights of the colored people in the South. Heavy fines and 
imprisonment were provided for those who attempted to keep 
persons from voting. To prevent the dreaded night raids, a 
punishment of not to exceed ten years’ imprisonment and a 
fine of not more than $10,000 was placed upon every person 
found guilty of going in disguise on the public highways, or 
on another’s premises with the intent to injure, intimidate, or 
to prevent him from enjoying the rights of a citizen. All such 
cases were to be brought to trial before the Federal courts. 
After many persons had been sent to jail, the power and violence 
of the Kuklux Klan were finally brought to an end, but the 


408 


History of the United States. 


southern whites by one means or another gradually gained con¬ 
trol, thus ending domination by the colored man. 

Great Fires. A very destructive fire broke out in Chicago 
on the evening of October 8, 1871, burned over an area of two 
hundred acres, and destroyed $200,000,000 worth of property. 
Two hundred lives were lost and 100,000 persons made home¬ 
less. No such terrible conflagration had been seen since the 
burning of Moscow, the capital of Russia, when the Russians 
set fire to the city to keep it from falling into the hands of 
Napoleon. 

In 1872 the city of Boston suffered a loss of $77,000,000 by a 
destructive fire. 

The Washington Treaty, 1871. During President Grant's 
first term three points of difference threatened the peaceful 
relations between the United States and Great Britain: The 
northwest water boundary; the Atlantic fisheries question; 
and the claims for damages by the United States for injury to 
American trade and commerce, during the Civil War, by the 
Alabama and other Confederate vessels built in England. 

A way was found for the peaceful solution of all these dis¬ 
putes by five British and five American commissioners, who 
met at Washington, D. C., and drafted what is known as the 
Treaty of Washington, 1871. This treaty, which was ratified 
by both countries, provided that all the disputes should be 
settled by arbitration, and prescribed the manner in which 
each of the difficulties should be adjusted. 

1. The Northwest Water-boundary Question was referred 
to the Emperor of Germany. 

2. The Fisheries Question was referred to three commission¬ 
ers, appointed, one by the President of the United States, one 
by the Queen of England, and a third by the Austrian Minister 
to England. 

3. The Alabama Claims were referred to five arbitrators, one 
from each of five countries: the United States, Great Britain, 
Brazil, Italy, and Switzerland. 

The Northwest Boundary. The boundary line between 
Vancouver Island and the United States was not well defined by 


From Grant to Garfield. 


409 


the Oregon Boundary Treaty of 1846. The British claimed that 
Rosario Strait was the boundary, while the Americans claimed 
that the boundary was Haro Strait. The German Emperor 
(1872) rendered a decision favorable to the United States, which 
gave us a group of small islands, 170 square miles in area, of 
which the most important is San Juan. 

The Alabama Claims or Geneva Award. The five com¬ 
missioners to whom were referred the claims against Great 
Britain for damage to American commerce during the war, met 
at Geneva, Switzerland. After hearing arguments from both 
nations, they decided (1872) that Great Britain did not use 
“due diligence ,, as a neutral nation to prevent the fitting out of 
war-vessels for Confederate service. By a vote of four to one, 
the board awarded the sum of $15,500,000 to the United States. 
This was paid by Great Britain the next year. 

The Fisheries Question. The Fisheries Question was 
settled in 1877. The United States was required to pay Great 
Britain $5,500,000 for the right to take and dry fish off the 
Canadian coast, subject to certain restrictions. 

SETTLEMENT OF THE WEST. 

Discovery of Gold and Silver. We have already learned 
what a marvelous effect the discovery of gold had upon the 
rapid settlement of California, and how eastern Kansas grew 
apace by the insurging tide of anti-slavery and pro-slavery men. 
Between these two regions was a tract of wild and unsettled 
land, nearly 2,000 miles in width. The discovery of gold near 
Pike’s Peak (1858) in what was then western Kansas, and the 
discovery of silver in western Utah (now Nevada), again started 
a stream of emigrants across prairie and mountain. In a short 
time, Virginia City, Nevada, became a thriving town in the 
heart of the richest silver district in the country. The territory 
of Nevada was formed in 1861, and three years later it was ad¬ 
mitted as a state. 

Vast crowds of fortune-seekers flocked to the Pike’s Peak 
region in quest of gold, and “Pike’s Peak or Bust” became the 
favorite motto of emigrant trains. Denver, the present metrop- 


410 


History of the United States. 


olis of the mountains, was founded in 1858; within a year it 
was a thriving town, and a little later was made the capital of 
Colorado, which was organized as a territory in 1861 and ad¬ 
mitted as a state in 1876. 



The Concord Stage-Coach. 

The stage-coach was the chief means of travel in the West before the coming of the 
railroad. Ordinary baggage of passengers was carried on the roof, with a railing for pro¬ 
tection. Mail-sacks, express packages and other baggage needing protection were carried 
on a platform, suspended on the back by chains or straps, and sheltered by leather or oiled 
canvas covering. This receptacle was called a “boot.” 

The coach was drawn by either four or six horses, in relays, and maintained a speed of 
ten miles an hour. 

Pony Express and Overland Stage. By 1860 there were 
three “way stations” dotting the mountain region between 
Kansas and California: one at Denver, a second at Salt Lake, 
and another at Virginia City. There was urgent demand that 
these places be connected with the East by mail and express 
route. To supply this need, Russell, Majors & Waddell opened 

a stage-coach route in 1860 
over the prairie from Leav¬ 
enworth to Denver, and the 
same year began to carry 
mail from St. Joseph, Mis¬ 
souri, to San Francisco by 
what was called the “Pony 
Express.” Stations supplied 
with spirited ponies were es¬ 
tablished twenty-five miles 
apart along the route. The mail carrier, setting out from St. 
Joseph, would speedily gallop to the first station, mount a 
fresh horse and dash away. A fresh rider took the mail at each 
third station. Day and night, in all kinds of weather, these 



The Pony Express. 








From Grant to Garfield. 


411 


hardy horsemen galloped across prairie, desert and mountain, 
delivering mail over a distance of 2,000 miles. The journey 
was made in about ten days. 

The Pony Express and Overland Stage are splendid examples 
of the spirit, grit and energy of the pioneers in supplying needs, 
and in opening the way for the great trans-continental railways, 
which were soon to follow: 

The Union Pacific Railroad. As early as 1860 both polit¬ 
ical parties favored government aid for building a railroad from 
the Missouri river to the Pacific. In 1862 Congress began the 
policy of granting help on a large scale to railroad companies. 
They voted: 1. To give a right-of-way from Omaha to San 
Francisco. 2. To grant, free of charge, every alternate section 
of land extending over a strip ten miles wide on each side of the 
railroad, and amounting to about 20,000 square miles, or almost 
half the area of the state of Pennsylvania. 3. To lend $50,000,000 
in money, and take as security a second mortgage on the rail¬ 
road property. 

The Union Pacific was begun at Omaha and built westward; 
the Central Pacific was begun at Sacramento and extended east¬ 
ward. The two gangs of workmen met near Ogden, Utah, where, 
on May 10, 1869, the two lines were united, when with silver 
hammers the last spikes, two of silver and two of gold, were 
driven into the last tie. 

The Homestead Act, 1862. One of the greatest factors in 
the rapid settlement of the West with thrifty, hardy people was 
the passage of the Homestead Law. By this act the govern¬ 
ment agreed to give 160 acres of land to any person over twenty- 
one years of age who would live on and cultivate the land for 
five years. Thousands of settlers flocked from the older states 
to the unoccupied lands of the new states and territories. Ship 
lines were busy carrying emigrants from Europe to share in the 
generous policy of the government. From 1863 to 1870, 103,000 
grants, amounting to a total of 12,000,000 acres, were given to 
home-seekers. Under the influence of this act and the con¬ 
struction of the Union Pacific Railroad, Nebraska grew apace 
in wealth and population, and became a state in 1867. Utah, 


412 


History of the United States. 


although in the mountain district, also shared in these benefits, 
bat Congress refused to admit the territory as a state until it 
made provision for abolishing polygamy, which had been 
sanctioned by the Mormon Church. After these requirements 
were complied with, Utah was admitted as a state, in 1896. 

The Northern Pacific and New States. After the com¬ 
pletion of the Union Pacific Railroad, work was begun on the 
Northern Pacific, which was to extend from Duluth, Minnesota, 
to Puget Sound. About 50,000,000 acres of land along the pro¬ 
posed route were granted by Congress to the company, and the 
work of construction was completed in 1883. The territories 
through which the road and its branches passed had a rapid 
growth, and within a decade after its completion six new states 
were admitted to the Union: North Dakota, South Dakota, 
Montana, and Washington, in 1889; and Idaho and Wyoming 
in 1890. 

The discovery of gold in the Black Hills led many fortune- 
seekers into the Northwest and hastened the development of 
that section. Washington had been organized as a territory as 
early as 1853, but grew slowly until the railroad furnished an 
easier route of travel to the Pacific slope. Then in a few years 
its population leaped from a hundred thousand to a million. 

The Santa Fe and the Southwest. About the same time 
that the Northern Pacific opened up the Northwest, the Atchi¬ 
son, Topeka & Santa Fe was completed through Kansas, Colo¬ 
rado, New Mexico and Arizona to Los Angeles, California, in 
the Southwest. These pioneer roads and others that fol¬ 
lowed, the discovery of the precious metals, together with the 
Homestead law, brought crowds of people to the then wild and 
unsettled portions of the country. A large part of the “American 
Desert” was made to btid and blossom into undreamed-of beauty 
and richness; a barren waste was changed to a land of plenty, 
supporting millions of happy and prosperous people. 

Oklahoma. Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) was organ¬ 
ized as a territory, 1834, and set apart as a home for Indians, 
to which various tribes from east of the Mississippi had been 
taken. The government, however, purchased the western part 


From Grant to Garfield . 


413 


of the territory from the Indians in 1889, organized it as the 
Territory of Oklahoma, and opened it to white settlers. No one 
was allowed to enter until noon of April 22, 1889. For several 
days previous to that date its borders were thronged with 
thousands of persons awaiting the signal that would open the 
coveted lands to settlers. When the bugle sounded at the ap¬ 
pointed hour, men and women in wagons, on horses, on trains 
and on foot, made a wild rush to select free land and stake out 
their claims. The territory had a remarkably rapid growth in 
wealth and population. 

In 1907 Oklahoma and Indian Territory were united and 
admitted to the Union as the state of Oklahoma, with over a 
million people—a population greater than that of any other 
state at the time of its admission. Oklahoma City, with a 
population in 1910 of 65,000, had grown in two decades from a 
houseless prairie to be the capital and metropolis of a great state. 

The Campaign of 1872. The campaign of 1872 was one of 
intense excitement. The Republican and Democratic parties 
each split into two wings, and in addition two new parties ap¬ 
peared in the race for the presidency. 

The Liberal Republican party demanded “universal am¬ 
nesty” for the South, favored civil-service reform, and no more 
railroad grants. They nominated for President Horace Greeley, 
the brilliant but eccentric founder and editor of the New York 
Tribune, and for Vice-President, B. Gratz Brown. 

The Republican party nominated Grant and Henry Wilson, 
indorsed the record of the party, favored civil service, and op¬ 
posed further land grants. 

The Democrats, believing that they could not defeat Grant 
for a second term by making a separate nomination, indorsed 
the nomination of Greeley. This displeased some of the party, 
who called another convention and nominated other candidates, 
who declined the honor. 

The Labor Party. The laboring men had for several years 
been holding meetings to consider plans to protect their inter¬ 
ests. In addition to favoring a law to exclude the Chinese, who 
after the discovery of gold had flooded California with cheap 


414 


History of the United States. 


labor, they in other ways sought protection for the working 
class. They finally called a convention and nominated David 
Davis for President; but he, too, declined to run. 

The Prohibition Party. In 1872 the prohibitionists held a 
national convention and nominated James Black for President 
and Rev. John Russell for Vice-President. This party has had 
candidates at every presidential election since that time. The 
vote cast for the candidates has never been very large, however, 
even in states where a majority of the people favor the temper¬ 
ance cause; for most temperance people believe they can fight 
the evils of the liquor traffic better through the old parties in 
local and state campaigns. 

Coinage Act of 1873. * A new coinage act, sometimes called 
the act “demonetizing silver,” was passed in 1873. Only 
fractional silver (half-dollars, quarters, and dimes) was to be 
coined under this act, and this was made a legal tender only in 
sums of five dollars or less. The coinage of the silver dollar was 
discontinued, but in four years following the passage of the 
act over 55,000,000 dollars’ worth of fractional silver was coined. 
This sum is more than twice the total amount of all silver 
coined in any four years prior to 1873. 

Period of Commercial Prosperity. Following the war 
there was great activity in all lines of industry. In. four years, 
1869 to 1873, 25,000 miles of railroad were built—an amount 
only 5,000 less than the total number of miles built before 1860. 
This called for a heavy investment in the iron industry, and 
gave employment to a large number of men. Commerce ex¬ 
panded by leaps and bounds, exports in 1872 amounting to over 
$600,000,000; imports to over $500,000,000. Under the Home¬ 
stead Act, vast areas were taken up by settlers and grain pro¬ 
duction increased enormously. Labor was plentiful, wages 
high, and all prices inflated. Opportunities for investment were 

* The government coined a five-cent silver piece from 1792 to 1873, and a three-cent 
silver piece from 1851 to 1873. Much of the time before 1872 the silver bullion needed to 
make a silver dollar was worth more than a dollar. Those who held the silver bullion sold 
H for commercial purposes instead of having it coined into money. Only 8,000,000 silver 
dollars were coined from 1792 to 1873. The law of 1873 also provided for the coinage of 
the “trade dollar,’’ and 30,000,000 of these were coined in four years, when its coinage was 
discontinued. 


From Grant to Garfield. 


415 


many and most flattering. People not only invested their sav¬ 
ings, but borrowed freely to buy lands, stocks and bonds. This 
great prosperity and excessive speculation ended, as is generally 
the case, in a commercial crash, 1873. 

Panic of 1873. The panic of 1873 began when the rich 
banking firm of Jay Cooke & Co., of Philadelphia, closed its 
doors. People, fearing that other banks would fail, made 
“runs” on them. The withdrawal of deposits compelled the 
banks to call in their loans. As borrowers in many instances 
could not pay the principal or even the interest, banks were 
compelled to close their doors. Tens of thousands of men were 
thrown out of work, and many more found employment on 
short time or at reduced wages. Industries were paralyzed, and 
the nation was plunged suddenly from prosperity and plenty 
into failure and want.* 

Several things combined to bring on the panic. The new 
railroads in a sparsely settled country were not profitable. 
Those who purchased bonds received little or no income from 
them, and bankers who held bonds could not sell them. Rail- 
road-building came to a standstill, iron foundries and other in¬ 
dustries closed, and the earning capacity of labor and capital 
was greatly reduced. The new wheat-fields in the West by 
over-production brought down the price of grain, so speculators 
lost heavily. Money became scarce because large amounts left 
the country to pay interest on the foreign debt and to pay for 
the goods which were imported. 

Measures to Relieve the Panic. The people looked to 
Congress to relieve the distress caused by the panic. Some 
believed there should be more paper money, while others be¬ 
lieved that all paper money should be made redeemable in coin. 
In 1874 Congress enacted a measure called the Inflation Bill, 
requiring the Secretary of the Treasury to issue $44,000,000 
more in greenbacks. But a paper dollar was not then worth a 
dollar in gold, and as Grant believed that an increase of paper 
money would make it still less valuable as compared with gold, 
he vetoed the bill. 

* Five thousand business firms failed in 1873, and as many more in 1874. 


416 


History of the United States. 


Specie Resumption, 1875. With the hope of making paper 
money of equal purchasing power with gold, Congress passed 
the Specie Resumption Act, 1875, which required the Secretary 
of the Treasury, on and after January 1, 1879, to redeem in 
coin* all greenbacks or other paper money presented for re¬ 
demption. 

The Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to sell bonds 
until he had a sufficient supply of gold on hand to exchange for 
paper money. He collected $140,000,000, but when the time 
came to redeem the notes, paper money was worth as much 
as gold, and was so satisfactory to the people that very little 
was sent in for redemption. 

The small paper bills, issued during the war for change, were 
made redeemable at the postoffices and subtreasuries, in the 50- 
cent, 25-cent and 10-cent silver pieces. 

Custer’s Defeat. The settlement of the West, like that 
of the East, was attended by Indian wars and massacres. The 
most disastrous of these was the complete defeat of General 
George Custer on the Little Big Horn river, in Montana. 
The discovery of gold in the Black Hills of Dakota brought 
settlers and gold-seekers into conflict with the fierce and power¬ 
ful Sioux Indians. The government attempted to remove 
the Indians to a new reservation, but the Indians, under their 
able chief “Sitting Bull,” refused to go, and prepared to re¬ 
sist the troops sent against them. General Custer’s command 
of about 200 cavalry, in making an attack upon their camp, was 
surrounded by more than 2,000 Indians, and every man in the 
command was killed (1876). More troops were hurried to the 
scene, and the Indians were finally defeated in several battles, 
the survivors escaping to Canada. 

Corruption in Office. Corruption in office has been one 
of the evils in our system of government. Some men are will¬ 
ing to risk reputation, honor and liberty for the sake of riches 
dishonestly acquired. 

“Boss Tweed,” commissioner of public works, in New York 

* While coin means either gold or silver, all Secretaries of the Treasury have redeemed 
the paper money with gold. 


From Grant to Garfield . 


417 


City, organized a “ring” of office-holders which managed 
to rob the city of many millions of dollars. The “ring” was 
finally broken up, and Tweed was sent to the penitentiary, 
where, after judgment had been rendered against him for 
the recovery of over $6,000,000 and interest, he died. 

The Whisky Ring, and Other Frauds. A number of 
revenue collectors combined with whisky distillers to cheat the 
government by keeping part of the revenue tax. The guilty 
parties were found out and the “ring” leaders sent to jail. 
The Secretary of War was impeached for requiring bribes of 
persons for appointments and for promotions in office. He re¬ 
signed, and thus escaped conviction, which would have dis¬ 
qualified him “to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or 
profit under the United States.” (See Const., Sec. 3, Art. I.) 

Credit Mobilier was the name of a stock company which 
built the Union Pacific Railroad. By letting contracts to its 
own members at exorbitant prices, it made enormous profits, 
and rapidly used up the money received from the government 
and from the sale of bonds. This company had secretly placed 
30,000 shares (worth about $9,000,000) among certain Congress¬ 
men, hoping in this way to induce Congress to vote more money 
and land to the railroad company. This was nothing more nor 
less than bribery, and after an investigation, two representatives 
were censured and one senator barely escaped expulsion. 

Centennial, 1876. Following the “Crystal Palace” ex¬ 
hibition of 1853, and far outstripping it in magnitude and 
beneficial results, was the Philadelphia Exposition of 1876, 
commemorating the Declaration of Independence. It was a 
great display of arts, inventions, industries and products, not 
only by the United States but by most of the civilized nations 
of the earth. Nearly 10,000,000 persons visited the great 
show from May 10th to November 10th, and carried with them 
to their homes many ideas which aided in the rapid develop¬ 
ment of our country. 

Presidential Campaign, 1876. Corruption in office, mili¬ 
tary rule in the South, and the money question, were the lead¬ 
ing issues in the campaign of 1876. 


418 


History of the United States. 


The Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes and Will¬ 
iam A. Wheeler, the Democrats Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. 
Hendricks, and the Prohibitionists Green C. Smith and G. T. 
Stewart. A new party, called the Greenback Party, appeared, 
and nominated Peter Cooper, the great philanthropist, for 
President. It opposed the Specie Payment Act, and wished 
the government to issue paper money bearing a low rate of 
interest. 

After a bitter - contest, the campaign ended in doubt as to 
who was elected, both Democrats and Republicans claiming 
victory. The electoral votes from South Carolina, Florida, 
Louisiana, and one from Oregon, were in dispute. Should every 
electoral vote in these states be counted for the Republicans, 
Hayes would have 185 votes to Tilden’s 184, but any other de¬ 
cision meant Democratic victory.* The Constitution pro¬ 
vides that the “President of the Senate shall, in the presence 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certifi¬ 
cates, and the votes shall then be counted.” But the Senate, 
which was Republican, wished to count all votes for Hayes, 
and the House, which was Democratic, wished to count the 
votes for Tilden. Not being able to agree, they referred the 
question to a commission of fifteen men,—five senators and 
five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. 

Electoral Commission. * Eight of the commissioners were 
Republicans and seven were Democrats. The Republicans 
voted together in favor of counting all the disputed votes for 
Hayes, and the Democrats voted solidly in opposition. By a 
vote of eight to seven, therefore, every vote in question was 
cast for Hayes, which gave him a majority of one. Had there 
been a majority of Democrats on the commission, Tilden would, 
no doubt, have been declared the President. 

* The commissioners were selected as follows: Five senators by the Senate (three 
Republicans and two Democrats); five representatives by the House (three Democrats 
and two Republicans); five justices of the Supreme Court (two Democrats and two Re¬ 
publicans), and the fifth by these four. 


From Grant to Garfield. 


419 





Rutherford B. Hayes. 


ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, 1877-1881. 

Policy of Hayes. The circumstances under which Hayes 
became President were very trying. The Democrats claimed 
that they had been cheated out of 
the office of President, and threat¬ 
ened to make serious trouble for 
him, while many of the Republican 
party leaders were not in sympathy 
with some of Hayes’s reform meas¬ 
ures. But he was honest, cour¬ 
ageous, and, believing that “he who 
serves his country best serves his 
party best,” he set to his task of 
giving a clean and praiseworthy ad¬ 
ministration. 

South Carolina and Louisiana, 
two of the states whose electoral 
vote had been contested and finally counted for Hayes, also 
had two rival state Governments,—one Republican and the 
other Democratic. The Federal troops helped to uphold the 
former, while a majority of the white people supported the 
latter. In settlement of these difficulties, Hayes conferred with 
the leading southern men, and obtained promises from them 
to uphold national laws in the South and to aid in a peaceful 
settlement of the state troubles. Accordingly he withdrew the 
Federal troops from these states. As a result, carpet-bag rule 
speedily disappeared, and the South became solidly Democratic. 
His southern policy as well as his efforts to promote civil- 
service reform led many Republicans to bitterly oppose him. 

Civil-Service Reform. From the administration of Jack- 
son to that of Hayes the “Spoils System” of filling offices had 
been in use. Men were appointed to fill federal positions be¬ 
cause they were political partisans, rather than because of 
special fitness for the positions. The selection was usually 
made by congressmen, who were thus able to build up a politi¬ 
cal machine to perpetuate themselves and their party in office. 


420 


History of the United States. 


By this plan many incompetent and dishonest men found 
official employment. When a party was defeated all office¬ 
holders were turned out and members of the victorious party 
appointed to fill the places made vacant. The evils of this 
system led to the enactment of a 

Civil-Service Law, in 1871. Under this law a commission 
was appointed to examine applicants and to select those who 
showed special fitness and qualification. These were to hold 
their positions so long as they gave good service. Although 
both parties had twice declared for civil service in their plat¬ 
forms, Congress, influenced by politicians and lamenting the 
loss of federal patronage, refused in 1875 to vote any more 
money to carry on the reform; but President Hayes made a 
noble effort to appoint men of merit to positions, and to put 
into operation the civil-service reform plan wherever possible. 

The Pendleton Civil-Service Act. Little progress could 
be made, however, until Congress passed the Pendleton Civil- 
Service Act in 1883. Under it only those persons who have 
passed the required examination are eligible for appointment, 
and appointments must be made from those who pass the best 
examination. Soon after the passage of this act, 14,000 federal 
employes were placed under civil service. This number has 
been greatly increased in every administration since, but not¬ 
ably so in those of Cleveland and of Roosevelt. In 1910 
there were over 355,000 persons in the employ of the govern¬ 
ment under the civil-service law. 

Agitation for Silver Coinage, and Bland-Allison Act, 
1878. The silver in a silver dollar in 1871 was worth $1.02. 
Those who had silver bullion sold it to manufacturers of silver¬ 
ware, instead of having it coined into dollars. For this reason, 
very few silver dollars were coined previous to 1873. The dis¬ 
covery of rich mines in the West greatly increased the produc¬ 
tion of silver, and caused the price to fall. A brisk agitation 
was therefore started, calling for free and unlimited coinage 
of silver. This, it was argued, would increase the amount of 
money, make better times, and, by creating a market for silver 
bullion, raise the price of that metal. 


421 


From Grant to Garfield . 

Representative Bland, of Missouri, introduced a bill in Con¬ 
gress providing for the free and unlimited coinage of silver 
at the ratio of 16 to 1, which passed the House. The Senate, 
under the leadership of Allison of Iowa, changed the bill, and 
it became a law in 1878 under the popular name of the Bland- 
Allison Act. 

The Bland-Allison Act Provided that— 

1. The Secretary of the Treasury must purchase at the market 
price not less than $2,000,000 worth nor more than $4,000,000 
worth of silver bullion, each month, and have it coined into 
standard silver dollars. 

2. The silver dollars should be legal tender in payment of 
debts. 

3. As it was inconvenient to carry many silver dollars, the 
Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to prepare paper 
money, called silver certificates, which could be put into cir¬ 
culation in place of the silver dollars. Whenever silver certifi¬ 
cates were put into circulation, a corresponding number of 
silver dollars were to be put into the government treasury. 
Under this act 378,166,000 silver dollars were coined. The 
act was repealed, November 1, 1890.* 

Railroad Strike, 1877. One of the alarming events in 
Hayes’s administration was the great railroad strike of 1877. 
The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company made a reduction 
of ten per cent in the wages of its employes, who refused to ac¬ 
cept the reduction, and went on a strike. Men from other lines 
joined out of sympathy, and soon tied up all traffic East and 


* Note. —This table is to be studied, not committed to memory. It will give at 
least one good reason why silver bullion has fallen in price compared with gold. 

PRODUCTION OP GOLD AND SILVER IN THE UNITED STATES. 


Decades. 

Value of Gold. 

Fine oz. of Silver.* 

Value pr. oz. Silver. 

1860-1870. 

$468,000,000 

78,000,000 

$1.35 to 1.32 

1870-1880. 

405,000,000 

248,000,000 

1.32 to 1.12 

1880-1890. 

327,000,000 

390,000,000 

1.14 to .93 

1890-1900. 

463,000,000 

563,000,000 

1.04 to .59 

1900-1910. 

856,000,000 

603,000,000 

.67 to .52 

1910. 

96,000,000 

57,000,000 

.52 


* An ounce of silver makes more than a silver dollar. An ounce contains 480 grains; a silver dollar weighs 
412} grains, of which nine-tenths is silver and one-tenth alloy. 













422 


History of the United States. 


West. The lawless elements formed into mobs which destroyed 
cars, engines, stations, and other railroad property. Troops 
were called out to suppress the violence of the mobs in Chicago, 
Pittsburg, Baltimore, and other cities. This was accomplished, 
but not until a hundred lives were lost and about $10,000,000 
worth of property destroyed. 

Presidential Election, 1880. Hayes was not a candidate 
for reelection. A determined effort was made by Roscoe 
Conkling and 305 delegates in the national convention to 
nominate General Grant for a third term. But Grant and 
James G. Blaine, who were the leading candidates, were both 
defeated, and the nomination went to James A. Garfield, of 
Ohio, a “dark horse.” Chester A. Arthur, of New York, was 
nominated for Vice-President. 

The Democrats nominated General Winfield S. Hancock, 
of New York; the Greenback Party, James B. Weaver, of 
Iowa; and the Prohibitionists, Neal Dow, of Maine. 

The Republicans favored a protective tariff, civil-service 
reform, the suppression of polygamy in Utah, and the restric¬ 
tion of Chinese immigration. The Democrats favored a tariff 
for revenue only, civil-service reform, and the restriction of 
Chinese immigration. 

Garfield and Hancock each carried nineteen states, but Gar¬ 
field received 214 electoral votes, while Hancock received only 
155. 


Suggestions for Review. 

Tell of the Carpet-Bag rule in the South. Of the Kuklux Klan. Of the 
“Force” Bills. What troubles threatened our peace abroad at this time? 
Give the substance of the Washington Treaty. What were the Alabama 
Claims? How were they settled? What boundary line was settled by 
the Emperor of Germany? Where was a new discovery made of gold and 
silver? Give the result. What was the Pony Express? The Overland 
Stage? What railroads received government aid? Why? What was the 
Homestead Act of 1862? What effect did the Homestead Law and con¬ 
struction of railroads in the West have on the country? What six new 
states came into the Union in 1889-1890? Tell of the admission of Okla¬ 
homa. What two territories were included in the new State? What 
caused the Panic of 1873? What was the Specie Resumption Act? Tell 


From Grant to Garfield. 


423 


of the Whisky Ring. Of the inflation of Silver. Of the Centennial 
Exhibition of 1876. What was the Joint High Commission? Who was 
chosen President? What is meant by “Civil-Service Reform”? What 
progress has been made in Civil Service? Is this a good system? Why? 
What caused a strong agitation for “free and unlimited coinage of silver” 
in the seventies? What compromise was made? What was the Bland- 
Allison Act? Give the cause of the strike of 1877. 


CHAPTER XXXV. 

FROM GARFIELD TO MCKINLEY. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD, 1881-1885. 

Scramble for Office. As soon as Garfield became President, 
office-seekers besieged him on every hand for appointments. 

While the Republican party plat¬ 
form declared for civil service, the 
political leaders were loath to give 
up party patronage. Senators and 
representatives claimed that the 
right to name persons for appoint¬ 
ments in the states belonged to 
them. Garfield appointed James G. 
Blaine as his Secretary of State. 
This was distasteful to Roscoe Conk- 
ling, senator from New York. Conk- 
ling and Blaine were enemies and 
political leaders of two wings into 
which the Republican party was 
divided; the former, of the “Stal¬ 
warts’’ or machine wing; the latter, of the “Half-breeds” or 
reform wing. This breach in the party was opened wider when, 
upon the recommendation of Secretary Blaine, the President 
appointed William Robertson as collector of the port of New 
York, over the protests of Senator Conkling and his colleague 
Thomas M. Platt. Both senators resigned their seats, and re¬ 
turned to their state, expecting that the legislature would reelect 
them to vindicate their position, but in this they were disap¬ 
pointed. 

Assassination of Garfield. Party spirit ran high, and 
reached such a stage of factional feeling that it indirectly re¬ 
sulted in the death of the President. A few weeks after the 



424 



From Garfield to McKinley. 


425 


resignation of the New York senators, on July 2nd, as President 
Garfield stood in the Baltimore & Ohio depot at Washington, 
waiting for a train, he was shot by 
Charles J. Guiteau (Ge-to')* of New 
York, .a fanatical “Stalwart” and 
disappointed office-seeker. Garfield 
lingered between life and death for 
more than two months, and finally 
died, September 19, 1881. Chester 
Alan Arthur, the Vice-President, 
succeeded to the presidency and 
filled the unexpired term. 

Immigration. The immigrants 
from foreign lands have had an im¬ 
portant part in the settlement and 
development of our country. From 1783 to 1910, about 28,- 
000,000 foreigners came to the United States, f Failure in 
crops, hard times, and political oppression in Europe,as well as 
high wages in the United States, have all helped to increase 
emigration to this country. For instance, the failure of the 
potato crop in Ireland in 1846 and 1854, and the hard times in 
Germany in 1853, greatly swelled the stream of immigration 
to the United States; and because of the especially prosperous 
times from 1904 to 1906, more than 2,000,000 foreigners arrived 
in this country. 

Panics and periods of business depression here, always tem¬ 
porarily decrease immigration. Only 855,000 immigrants 
arrived in the five years after the panic of 1873, while 1,886,000 
came during an equal time immediately before the panic. A 
similar decrease followed the panic of 1893. 

Character of the Immigrants. The countries of northern 
and central Europe (England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, 
Germany, Norway, and Sweden) until recently furnished the 
greater number of our immigrants, most of whom were persons 

*A jury pronounced Guiteau guilty of murder, and he was hanged June 30, 1882. 

f No immigration records were kept prior to 1820, but estimates place the number of 
immigrants who came to this country from the close of the Revolution up to 1820, at 
250,000. 




426 


History of the United States. 


of good character and high intelligence. They came to make 
homes, and readily absorbed the spirit* of our institutions. A 
large number being skilled laborers, mechanics and farmers, 
they helped to develop all lines of industry, and by thrift, 
energy and integrity, became most honorable and useful citizens. 
In recent years, however, the general character of the immi¬ 
grants has not been as good as in former times, because they have 
represented less favored regions. A large majority have come 
from southern and eastern Europe,—from Italy, Greece, Poland, 
Russia, and Hungary, and do not readily become Americanized. 
To these may be added Mexicans and Asiatics, many of whom 
after saving sufficient money return to their native land with 
their savings. One of the most difficult things for the ignorant 
foreigners to learn is that in America liberty is not license to do 
wrong. Hence, in times of strikes and disturbance, they have 
often been prominent in committing acts of violence. 


IMMIGRANTS FROM 1860 TO 1910, BY PERIODS OF FIVE YEARS. 


1860-65. 

. 697,000 

1865-70. 

.1,344,000 

1870-75. 

.1,886,000 

1875-80. 

. 885,000 

1880-85. 

.3,037,000 

1885-90. 

.2,211,000 


1890-95.2,455,000 

1895-1900.1,394,000 

1900-05.3,355,000 

1905-10.4,948,000 

1910.1,041,570 


Legislation Regulating Immigration. There has always 
been a large number of people in our country wishing more 
restriction placed on immigrants and immigration. The Alien 
and Sedition Laws (1798) and the American or Know-Nothing 
Party (1856) were movements representing this feeling. 

The influx of such a large number of persons, many of whom 
were undesirable, finally led Congress to pass more stringent 
immigration laws. The Anti-Contract Labor Law of 1885 
forbids anyone from bringing aliens into the United States 
under agreement to perform labor. The law of 1903 excludes 
all idiots, anarchists, paupers, criminals, diseased persons, and 
various other undesirable classes, and requires all persons ad¬ 
mitted to pay a tax of two dollars. Many persons believe that 















From Garfield to McKinley . 


427 


the tax should be increased to $50 or $100, and that no one 
should be admitted who cannot read and write. 

The Chinese. The Chinese first began coming to this 
country soon after the discovery of gold in California. They 
found work at railroad-building, in the mines, and as domestic 
servants. Their standard of life was so low that they could live 
on a few cents a day, and thus save money at wages for which 
Americans could not afford to work. White laborers found it 
difficult to get employment in competition with the Chinese. 
Many of these Orientals were brought by immigration com¬ 
panies to whom they had sold their services for a period of 
years, expecting sometime to return to China with their savings. 
But public sentiment turned against them, and the state of 
California attempted to stop this immigration by taxing the 
Chinese immigrants; this action was declared unconstitutional 
by the Supreme Court of the United States, for it was in 
violation of the Burlingame Treaty of 1868, which allowed them 
the right to come. An act was passed by Congress (in 1882) 
prohibiting Chinese immigration for ten years, and additional 
anti-Chinese legislation has been enacted at intervals since, with 
the result that all Chinese are now excluded from the United 
States excepting officials, students, travelers, and teachers. The 
Geary Act of 1893 required all Chinese then in the country to 
register and get a certificate of residence. By these records, 
officials can tell whether immigrants gain admission contrary 
to the Exclusion Act. 

A Vital Problem. The immigration problem is today one 
of vital importance. Each year brings a number of immigrants 
greater than the total number that arrived between the settle¬ 
ment of Jamestown and the Revolutionary War. The low 
standards of living followed by many of them tend to reduce 
wages; their concentration in great cities is a serious problem 
for the city governments. Can we assimilate and mould these 
millions into Americans and maintain our standards of life and 
the Republic unimpaired? 

Australian Ballot. Under our old system of voting each 
party had a separate ballot. A man went to the polls, selected 


428 


History of the United States. 


and marked his ballot in plain view of others. This afforded 
an opportunity, for employers and bribe-givers to corrupt or 
coerce him into voting as directed. This temptation to bribery 
and coercion has been largely removed by the general use of the 
Australian plan of voting. The voter enters the booth alone, 
and in secrecy prepares and folds his ballot, upon which the 
names of the candidates of all parties appear. No one but him¬ 
self can know how he voted, and as electioneering is not per¬ 
mitted at or about the polls a person has perfect freedom in 
casting his ballot. 

Presidential Campaign of 1884. In the campaign of 1884 
the tariff question, currency and civil service were leading issues. 
The Republican party nominated James G. Blaine and John A., 
Logan. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland and 
Thomas A. Hendricks. Nominations were also made by the 
Greenback, Prohibition, American, and Equal Rights (or 
Woman Suffrage) parties. 

Cleveland had attained a reputation for ability and inde¬ 
pendence as Mayor of Buffalo and as Governor of New York. 
Blaine had long been prominent in national politics, having 
been three times Speaker of the House of Representatives, and 
was Secretary of State under Garfield. He was an able man, 
with an attractive personality, but nevertheless had many 
enemies in his own party,—some because they were jealous, 
and others because they questioned his integrity. A number of 
these, who styled themselves independent Republicans but were 
nicknamed “ Mugwumps,” bolted the ticket, and Cleveland was 
elected, receiving 219 electoral votes to Blaine’s 182. He was 
the first Democratic President after the Civil War. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND, 1885-1889. 

Political Changes. The Republicans had controlled the 
affairs of government for twenty-four years, and naturally 
when Cleveland became President he was besieged by office- 
seekers of his party, who still believed that “to the victors 
belong the spoils.” But Cleveland, holding that merit should 
control appointments to office, greatly increased the scope of 


From Garfield to McKinley. 


429 



Grover Cleveland. 


the civil-service act by transferring positions from the un¬ 
classified to the classified list, at the risk of displeasing many 
who had voted for him. He was 
also in other ways a capable and 
fearless President. Among the im¬ 
portant laws passed during his 
administration were : 1. The Presi¬ 
dential Succession Act; 2. The 

Interstate Commerce Act; 3. The 
Chinese Exclusion Act. (See p. 427.) 

Presidential Succession Act, 

1886. The law of 1792 provided that 
in case of death, resignation, or other 
disability of both the President 
and Vice-President, the president pro 
tempore of the Senate, and if there was no president pro tempore 
of the Senate, then the speaker of the House of Representatives, 
should succeed to the presidency. The death of Garfield oc¬ 
curred -after the Forty-sixth Congress and before the Forty- 
seventh Congress met. There was therefore neither president 
pro tempore of the Senate nor speaker of the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives. Had Arthur died, the nation would have been with¬ 
out a President. It sometimes also happens that the presiding 
officers of the Senate and the House of Representatives belong 
to different parties from that to which the President and Vice- 
President belong.* To change from a victorious party to a de¬ 
feated party before the end of the four-year term, would be 
neither fair nor good business policy. Accordingly, a new law was 
passed in 1886, correcting these defects. This law provided that 
in case of the death or disability of both President and Vice- 
President, members of the Cabinet shall succeed to the office of 
President, beginning with the Secretary of State, and extending 
down the list one after the other in the order in which their 
offices were created. The order is: 


* After Vice-President Hendricks died in Cleveland’s first administration, John J. 
Ingalls, a Republican senator from Kansas, and president pro tempore of the Senate, would 
have become President, in the event of Cleveland’s death while President. 


430 


History of the United States. 


1. Secretary of State. 

2. Secretary of Treasury. 

3. Secretary of War. 

4. Attorney-General. 

5. Postmaster-General. 


6. Secretary of the Navy. 

7. Secretary of the Interior. 

*8. Secretary of Agriculture. 

9. Secretary of Commerce and Labor. 


Debt, Revenue, and Surplus. As a result of the high 
tariff and internal revenue taxes laid to meet the cost of the 
Civil War, vast sums of money continued to flow into the 
national treasury, until a large surplus had accumulated after 
current expenses and debts then due were paid. Less money 
was needed, so Congress removed the internal revenue tax from 
many articles and lowered it on others. The income from this 
source then dropped from $309,000,000 in the year 1866 to 
$110,000,000 in 1875. For the same period there was little 
change either in tariff rates or in the income from tariff duties, 
A ten-per-cent tariff reduction was made in 1872, but the 
original schedule was restored in 1875. Another slight reduc¬ 
tion was made in 1883. Yet, the government receipts were 
greater than the expenses, the surplus amounting in 1888 to 
$103,000,000. What should be done with the money? Several 
things were suggested : 1. To deposit the money in banks; 2. 
To reduce the income by reducing taxes; 3. To spend more 
money for internal improvements; 4. To pay bonds not yet 
due. 

President Cleveland favored the reduction of the tariff tax; 
and the Mills Bill, embodying his views, passed the Democratic 
House but was rejected by the Republican Senate. The sur¬ 
plus was then used to reduce the debt, but the government had 
to pay the bond-owners more than face value, before they 
would consent to give up good interest-paying securities not 
yet due. 

From 1879 to 1890 the debt was reduced $1,105,000,000, 
which is without a parallel in the history of nations. 

Abuses by Railroads. Many abuses sprang up in the man¬ 
agement of railroads, which resulted in injustice to individuals 


* The Secretary of Agriculture and Secretary of Commerce and Labor were placed in 
line of Presidential succession when their departments were created. 



From Garfield to McKinley. 


431 


and communities. In many instances the roads helped trusts, 
like the Standard Oil Company, to crush out competition and 
ruin the small producers by charging them higher rates. They 
charged lower rates when there were competing trunk lines, 
and then made up for the loss by charging high freight rates 
to shippers who were compelled to rely only on a single road. 
They discriminated against the small shipper in favor of the 
large one, and opposed the natural spread of industry by giving 
low rates to one locality and charging high rates to another. 

In addition to this, many persons believed that the shipping 
rates in many cases were too high. The western farmers be¬ 
lieved that they were charged too much in marketing their 
grain and stock. In response to this sentiment, in 1867, they 
formed an organization called the Patrons of Husbandry or 
Grangers, whose main purpose was to get more favorable trans¬ 
portation rates for the products of the farm. This opposition 
to abuses in the railroad management spread until the public 
demanded that Congress pass a law to end this discrimination 
and these extortionate rates. The result was the Interstate 
Commerce Act. 

The Interstate Commerce Act, 1887. This act, passed 
in 1887, regulates passenger and freight rates where the trans¬ 
portation is conducted through more than one state, and pro¬ 
vides for a Commission of five men, appointed by the President, 
to see that the law is obeyed. The Commission has power to 
hear all evidence and enforce its decisions in the courts if nec¬ 
essary. 

The law provides that: 1. Railroads shall not charge one 
person more than another for the same service; 2. Freight 
rates must be posted where persons' can see them, and no 
changes can be made without notice; 3. Roads shall not charge 
more for a short haul than for a longer one, provided the former 
is included in the latter. 4. There shall be no “pooling.” 
5. Roads must make a sworn statement of their business to the 
government. 

The Rate Law of 1906 gives the Interstate Commerce Com¬ 
mission power, specifically, to fix rates, allowing the roads the 


432 


History of the United States. 

right of appeal to the courts. It prohibits railroads from giv¬ 
ing rebates and from issuing passes, except to their employes. 
Pipe lines, express companies and sleeping-car companies are 
placed under the provisions of the.law. 

By means of these laws, much injustice to the masses and in 
favor of special persons and powerful corporations has been 
corrected. 

Presidential Election, 1888. Revenue, surplus and tariff 
were the important issues between the two great parties in the 
campaign of 1888. The Democrats again nominated Cleve¬ 
land, and advocated economy in 
office and tariff for revenue only, 
which they claimed would reduce 
the surplus and lower the cost of 
living. The Republicans nominated 
Benjamin Harrison and Levi P. 
Morton. They favored a tariff to 
protect home manufactures. The 
party leaders argued that a high 
tariff protects industries, makes high 
wages, and results in good times. 
The Prohibition, Union Labor and 
United Labor parties nominated 
candidates. Harrison, having re¬ 
ceived the highest number of electoral votes, was elected, but 
Cleveland received the majority of the popular vote. 

ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON, 1889-1893. 

The McKinley Tariff Act, 1890. The Republicans passed 
a new tariff law, the McKinley Act,* which raised the duties 
on imports higher than ever before. Raw sugar was placed on 
the free list, but in order to protect the sugar interests a bounty 
of two cents was paid by the government to sugar manufacturers 
for every pound of sugar made within the United States. This 

* Tariff bills are usually named after the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, 
which makes the tariff act. William McKinley was at this time chairman of this com¬ 
mittee. 



Benjamin Harrison. 


From Garfield to McKinley. 


433 

was a departure from any previous plan. The act also con¬ 
tained a reciprocity clause, which authorized the President to 
reduce the tariff rates on articles not produced in this country, 
providing other countries would reduce their duties in like 
manner on our products. In this manner a greater market was 
anticipated for our machinery and other manufactured goods 
in other countries, while many foreign products are admitted 
to the United States free, or on the payment of a small duty. 

Growth of Trusts and Corporations. The latter part of 
the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries 
are noted for the rapid growth of trusts and combinations of 
business on a large scale. The principal object is so far as 
possible to- destroy competition, reduce the cost of production, 
control prices, and increase profits. Combines have been made 
by the purchase of rival plants, by an agreement upon prices 
with rival companies, and by underselling and forcing weaker 
companies into bankruptcy, and then restoring prices. So 
marked has been this movement for the combination of capital, 
that almost every line of important industry is under its con¬ 
trol, or has felt its influence. Out of this condition have come 
great “ captains of industry,” and multi-millionaires (Rocke¬ 
feller, Carnegie, Rogers, Hill, Harriman, Morgan, Gould, Van¬ 
derbilt, and many others), who exercise a mighty influence over 
the industrial and financial affairs of the nation. 

Though many evils have attended the growth and develop¬ 
ment of trusts and corporations, they had have much to do with 
the development of more efficient business methods. They have 
lessened the cost of production, eliminated waste, and made use 
of by-products; but too frequently, when controlled by greed 
and avarice, they have oppressed the laborer, disobeyed laws, 
destroyed competitors, and raised prices to make enormous 
profits. 

These evils led Congress in 1890 to pass the Anti-Trust Act, 
violations of which are made punishable by fine or jail sen¬ 
tence. 

The Sherman Purchase Act, 1890. The large amount of 
silver coined under the Bland-Allison Act (see p. 421) did not 


434 


History of the United States. 


keep .the price of silver bullion from falling, so the advocates 
of the free coinage of silver, who were largely found in the West 
and South, again became very active; while they failed to 
secure a law providing for the free coinage of silver, they 
succeeded in getting a compromise measure called the Sherman 
Purchase Act, which repealed the purchase clause of the Bland- 
Allison Act and greatly increased the amount of silver bullion 
purchased by the government. 



The United States Treasury at Washington. 

Into this building flows all the money collected by the government from customs and 
internal revenue taxes and from it the money flows in a never-ending stream, millions each 
day. In its vaults are stored hundreds of millions of dollars in gold and silver, and into 
it come the vast millions of paper money, notes crisp from the Bureau of Printing and 
Engraving, before they are passed into the channels of business. 

Here thousands of persons, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, are 
employed to carry on this branch of the big business of the government. 

The Sherman Act provided that: 

1. The Secretary of the Treasury should purchase 4,500,000 
ounces of silver bullion each month, and pay for it by issuing 
paper money called treasury notes. 

2. The treasury notes should be redeemable in coin. 

3. The silver bullion should be stored in the treasury at 
Washington, but 2,000,000 ounces should be coined each month 














435 



Destroying Paper Money in the Bureau of Printing and Engraving. 

Here more than a million dollars’ worth of old, dirty or multilated paper money, sent 
by bankers and other persons for redemption, is daily destroyed by being ground into pulp, 
in the government macerator. In exchange for these notes the government sends new, 
crisp bills, which pass into circulation until they too are returned to the Treasury, old, 
ragged and worn, to be exchanged for new ones. 

The largest amount of paper money ever destroyed at one time was $166,095,000. 

Populist or People’s Party, 1891. During the Civil War 
and for some time after, farm products were high and farmers 
prosperous. This condition was followed by a period of low 
prices and small profits to the farmer. The tariff protected 
many lines of industry, and thus made manufacturing centers 
more prosperous than rural districts. The spirit of discontent 
spread throughout the agricultural West and South. Various 
organizations, such as the Patrons of Husbandry (the Grange), 
the Farmers’ League, the Farmers’ Alliance, and others, were 
formed to further the interests of the farmer. These in 1889 
united politically into the Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial 
Union, which entered politics with the hope of securing more 
favorable legislation. 


From Garfield to McKinley . 

until July 1, 1891, after which date coinage should be optional 
with the Secretary of the Treasury. 







436 


History of the United States. 


The Alliance leaders met with Labor Leaders (1891) and 
formed a new national party, called the People’s Party, later 
known as the Populist Party. The next year they nominated 
James B. Weaver for President and James G. Fields for Vice- 
President, on a platform that demanded: 1. Free and un¬ 
limited coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of 16 to 1; 2. A 
graduated income tax; 3. That the government should lend 
money, secured by land and produce, to the people at a rate 
of two per cent. They also favored postal savings banks, 
election of United States senators by direct vote of the people, 
and a single term for the President of the United States. The 
party cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected twenty-two presi¬ 
dential electors. 

The Democrats again nominated Cleveland for President and 
Adlai Stevenson for Vice-President. The Republicans nomi¬ 
nated Benjamin Harrison and Whitelaw Reid. The principal 
issues were tariff, free coinage of silver, and trusts. The Demo¬ 
crats were victorious, and gained control of both houses of 
Congress, Cleveland receiving 277 electoral votes and Harri¬ 
son 145. 

CLEVELAND’S SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 1893-1897. 

Gold Reserve. The gold reserve is the supply of gold kept 
on hand by the government to redeem the paper money,—treas¬ 
ury notes issued for the purchase of silver bullion, and green¬ 
backs. In 1893 there were nearly $500,000,000 in paper, ex¬ 
changeable for gold ($150,000,000 treasury notes and $346,- 
000,000 greenbacks). Many doubted the ability of the govern¬ 
ment to redeem such a large and constantly increasing amount 
of paper money. The reserve since 1879 had never been less 
than $100,000,000, and in 1890 it reached $190,000,000. As 
hard times set in there was a heavy drain on the gold reserve: 
(1) Because imports exceeded exports and the balance in trade 
had to be paid in gold; (2) Importers by exchanging paper for 
gold made a heavy drain on the gold supply. The reserve thus 
rapidly dwindled. People became alarmed, drew gold out of 
banks, and began to hoard it, fearing the government would 


From Garfield to McKinley. 


437 


be forced to pay in silver. The government, however, bor¬ 
rowed gold by issuing $262,000,000 in bonds, and the credit 
of the nation was preserved, but the debt increased to the ex¬ 
tent of the bond issue.* 

Panic of 1893. The year 1893 will be remembered for the 
disastrous panic in financial and business circles. Every line 
of industry was affected. Money was withdrawn from cir¬ 
culation. Trade fell off, imports were greater than exports, 
and the expenses of the government during the year ending 
June, 1894, exceeded the income by $165,000,000. 

Causes. Fear of a change in the tariff laws, excessive spec¬ 
ulation, especially in boom towns in the central and western 
states, and an over-production, combined with the fear that 
the government could not pay in gold, were the causes of the 
panic. Every line of industry was disturbed. A large num¬ 
ber of individuals, banks and companies failed. Mills, fac¬ 
tories and foundries were forced to close or run on short time.f 
Thousands of persons were thrown out of work, and families 
suffered for bread, In large cities soup-houses were opened to 
feed the hungry. 

Strikes and “Coxey’s Army.” The reduction of wages 
by the Pullman Company, near Chicago, in consequence of 
hard times, led to a strike. Employes of the various railroads 
entering Chicago, out of sympathy, refused to handle the 
Pullman cars. Riots followed, hundreds of cars were destroyed, 
and traffic was tied up. President Cleveland sent Federal 
troops to open up the mail routes. 

Other effects of the hard times were the formation of armies 
of idle men like “Coxey’s Army” from Ohio and Kelley’s from 
San Francisco, who set out on marches to Washington to de¬ 
mand help from Congress. 

Sherman Act Repealed. Believing that the issue of so 

*The difference between the total imports and total exports, called the “balance in 
trade,” is paid in gold. When the balance in trade is in favor of the United States, gold 
flows into the country. If the balance is against the United States, gold leaves the treasury. 

t Five hundred banks and 15,242 firms with liabilities of $346,000,000 failed in 1893; 
156 railroads, including the Northern Pacific and Union Pacific, with 39,000 miles of road, 
went into the hands of receivers. 


438 


History of the United States. 


much paper money for the purchase of silver bullion was one 
of the chief causes of the financial and business disturbance, 
President Cleveland called a special session of Congress (August, 
1893), and advised the repeal of the Sherman Act. (See p. 434.) 
Both Democrats and Republicans from the silver-producing 
states joined with the Populists to oppose it, but after long 
and exciting debates the Sherman Act was repealed, Novem¬ 
ber 1, 1893. 

The World’s Fair, 1893.* The greatest of all the world’s 
fairs yet seen was held in Chicago, 1893. It celebrated the 
four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. In 
addition to the general display, every state and all the leading 
nations erected buildings of their own. The grounds on the 
shores of Lake Michigan were large and attractive. The 
buildings were models in architecture. The exhibits in ma¬ 
chinery, agricultural products, art, sculpture, science, ed¬ 
ucation and invention were greater than any that had yet been 
seen. The nations of the earth vied with one another in mak¬ 
ing the finest and most artistic display. Nearly 22,000,000 
admissions were taken at the gates. 

Venezuela and the Monroe Doctrine. For some years 
the boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana was 
in dispute. Great Britain refused to settle by arbitration, and 
in 1895 was about to enforce its claim to a portion of the terri¬ 
tory claimed by Venezuela. President Cleveland informed 
the British government that such an act on the part of Great 
Britain would be a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. After 
an unsuccessful attempt to get England to submit the dispute 
to arbitration, the President sent a message to Congress recom¬ 
mending that the United States investigate, ascertain and de¬ 
clare the true boundary line, and “then it will be the duty of 
the United States to resist by every means in its power” any at¬ 
tempt on the part of Great Britain to take the territory belong¬ 
ing “of right to Venezuela.” The message, which was warlike 
in tone, created much excitement in England and the United 

* The original plan was to hold the fair in 1892. The work could not be completed on 
time, so the fair was postponed one year. 


From Garfield to McKinley. 


439 


States. The final outcome, however, was that England yielded 
to the demands of Cleveland. A commission of five, including 
two judges of the United States Supreme Court, was appointed, 
which located the boundary line, 1899. A portion of the 
territory in dispute was awarded to Venezuela, but a larger 
portion was given to Great Britain. 

The Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act, 1894. True to party 
pledges, the Democrats set to work to revise the tariff. After 
prolonged discussion the Wilson Bill passed both houses and 
became a law, August 27, 1894. The act lowered the duties; 
on many articles, and put wool, salt and lumber on the free 
list. It restored the duty on sugar and repealed the bounty 
allowed under the McKinley Act. The bill was not satis¬ 
factory to Cleveland, but he believed it was better than the 
McKinley Act, so he let the bill become a law without his sig¬ 
nature. 

The Income Tax Law. One clause of the tariff act pro¬ 
vided that two per cent of all annual incomes in excess of 
$4,000 should be paid to the government. A man whose in¬ 
come was $6,000 a year was required to pay 2 per cent of 
$2,000 or $40.* 

Seal Fisheries. The greatest seal fisheries in the world are 
around the Aleutian Islands, off the coast of Alaska. The 
United States, after the purchase of this territory from Russia, 
claimed the exclusive right to the sea surrounding the islands, 
but Great Britain claimed an equal right outside of the three- 
mile limit from the shore. A number of Canadian vessels, 
while taking seals, were captured by American cruisers and 
their cargoes of sealskins confiscated. This threatened to dis¬ 
turb the peaceful relations between the two nations, but the 
dispute was finally settled by seven commissioners (two from 
the United States, two from Great Britain, and one each from 
France, Italy, Norway, and Sweden), at Paris, 1893. The 
commission decided that the United States could not control 
the waters beyond the three-mile limit, and that it should pay 

* Because it was a direct tax, laid according to wealth and not in proportion to popula¬ 
tion, the Supreme Court by a vote of five to four declared the act unconstitutional. 


440 


History of the United States . 


for damages done the Canadian vessels. An agreement was 
also made between the two nations for a limited protection 
of the seals. 

Presidential Campaign of 1896. The Republicans laid 
the cause of hard times to the tariff act. The Democrats and 
Populists laid it to the scarcity of money, and proposed to 
increase the amount of circulating medium by opening the 
mints to the free coinage of silver. The money question, there¬ 
fore, became the issue between the 
old parties, and even led, to divi¬ 
sions within the parties. 

The Democrats nominated Will¬ 
iam J. Bryan and Arthur Sewall, on 
a platform declaring for the free 
and unlimited coinage of silver and 
gold at a ratio of 16 to 1, and for a 
tariff for revenue only. But an 
element of the party opposed the 
free-silver doctrine, and nominated 
John M. Palmer and Simon B. Buck¬ 
ner on a gold-standard platform.* 

The Republicans opposed the free coinage of silver except 
by international agreement, favored a high protective tariff, 
and nominated William McKinley and Garret A. Hobart. 
Twenty-two delegates, representing the silver-producing states 
(Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, South Dakota, and Utah), led by 
Senator Henry M. Teller, withdrew from the Republican con¬ 
vention and assisted in forming anew party called the National. 
Silver Party, which indorsed the nomination of Bryan and 
Sewall. 

The Populist party nominated William J. Bryan and Thomas 
E. Watson. Nominations were also made by the Socialist- 
Labor, Prohibition, and National Prohibition parties. 

No other campaign since the Civil War has stirred the nation 
so deeply on public questions, and no other has been so full of 

* This was an indication that the bitterness of the Civil War was over in truth, for 
Buckner was the Confederate general who surrendered Fort Donelson to General Grant. 



William J. Bryan. 


From Garfield to McKinley. 


441 


debate and argument on every rostrum and street-corner. 
McKinley and Hobart were elected.* 

* McKinley and Hobart received 271 electoral votes and 7,111,607 popular votes. 
Bryan and Sewall received 176 electoral votes and 6,502,600 popular votes. 


Suggestions for Review. 

Tell of the death of President Garfield. What has influenced emigration 
from Europe to the United States? What European countries sent the 
largest number of emigrants? What was the “Anti-Contract Labor Law ” ? 
What was the Chinese Exclusion Act? Should there be greater restriction 
on immigration? What is the Australian Ballot? What benefits have 
come from its introduction? Who were the presidential candidates? 
Give the result of the election. 

What was the Presidential Succession Act? Why passed? What is meant 
by debt? Revenue? Surplus? What different ways could the government 
take to reduce the surplus? What was the Interstate Commerce Act? 
What was Cleveland’s attitude on Civil-Service Reform? What produced 
the surplus in 1888? For what purpose was the money used? What were 
the issues in the presidential campaign? 

What was the McKinley Tariff Act? What was the Reciprocity clause? 
Tell something of the growth of trusts and corporations. What is meant by 
a “captain of industry”? A multi-millionaire? What was the Anti- 
Trust Act of 1890? What was the Sherman Act? Give its provisions. 
Give the origin of the Populist party. Name candidates and give issues 
in the campaign of 1892. 

Tell of the gold reserve. Why were bonds issued? What produced the 
Panic of 1893? Tell some of its results. Tell of the World’s Fair in 
Chicago. How did the Monroe Doctrine apply to the dispute between 
Venezuela and Great Britain? What was the Wilson Tariff Act? What is 
meant by an income tax? What was the Seal Fishery difficulty? How 
was it settled? 

Name the important events in each administration in this chapter. 
Write the names of the leading men, and tell something about each. 


CHAPTER XXXVI. 


ANNEXATION OF ISLANDS AND SPANISH- 
AMERICAN WAR. 

ADMINISTRATION OF WILLIAM McKINLEY, 1897-1901. 

The Dingley Tariff Bill. Two days after his inauguration 
President McKinley called a special session of Congress to deal 
with the tariff and revenue, for the 
expenses of the government had for 
some time been greater than the 
receipts, and more revenue was 
needed. Congress repealed the Wil¬ 
son Act and passed the Dingley 
Tariff Act (1897), which restored 
and in some cases increased the 
rates of the McKinley Act, and 
thus effected an increase in the in¬ 
come of the government. 

Hawaiian Islands Annexed, 
1898. Americans who had settled 
in Hawaii largely controlled the in¬ 
dustries of the islands. The Queen (Liliuokalani) early in 
January, 1893, formed a new constitution which greatly in¬ 
creased her powers and restricted the rights of foreigners. The 
latter naturally objected to this, with the result that a band of 
soldiers, led by the Americans and aided by American sailors 
from the steamer Boston, deposed the Queen without loss of 
life, raised the American flag, and formed a republic,* which 
they declared a “protectorate” of the United States. A treaty 
of annexation to the United States was drafted and sent by 

* Sanford B. Dole, an American, was chosen President. 

442 



Annexation of Islands — Spanish-American War. 443 

special messenger to Washington. President Harrison sent the 
treaty to the Senate for ratification February 15, 1893, but be¬ 
fore action was taken Congress adjourned and Harrison retired 
from office. Cleveland, who succeeded Harrison as President 
(March 4, 1893), withdrew the treaty from the Senate because 
of the belief that the success of the revolution was due to the 
presence of American sailors. Hawaii remained under her pro¬ 
visional government for several years, but at the outbreak of 
the Spanish-American War, when the need of a naval base in 
the Pacific became urgent, Congress passed a joint resolution, 
August, 1898, annexing the islands to the United States. 

Samoan Islands Annexed, 1898. In efforts to extend our 
trade the United States became interested in a group of islands 
in the South Pacific, known as the Navigator or Samoan Is¬ 
lands, and leased the important harbor of Pago-Pago as a naval 
base. After several years of civil war between rival chiefs, 
Germany and Great Britain (which also had obtained a footing 
there) joined the United States to maintain peace and order in 
the islands. This was a difficult task because ambitious chiefs 
continued to plot and wage war against the native rulers. 
Moreover, the alliance with Great Britain and Germany was 
not satisfactory. By mutual agreement the trouble was settled 
in 1899, by dividing the islands between Germany and the 
United States, England receiving concessions elsewhere. Ger¬ 
many received all islands west of the 171st meridian and the 
United States all east of it, including the Islands of Manu, Ofoo, 
Olosengo, and Tutuila, with the harbor of Pago-Pago. Several 
other small and uninhabited islands in the mid-Pacific (Mid¬ 
way, Marcus, Baker, and Howland), not claimed by other 
nations, were in 1898 annexed to the United States for tele¬ 
graph stations and landing-places in emergencies. 

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 

Spanish Rule in Cuba. Spain had witnessed the decline of 
her power on the American continent, until of her once glorious 
empire, extending over Florida, Mexico, California and South 
America, only Cuba and Porto Rico remained in her possession. 


444 


History of the United States. 


Over these she continued to rule with injustice and cruelty. 
Again and again had the Cubans taken up arms to free them¬ 
selves from Spanish oppression, only to find their burdens and 
taxes made heavier at the close of each uprising. The $300,- 
000,000 which Spain had spent in suppressing the rebellions 
were added to the Cuban debt. Taxes became consequently 
more burdensome, and promised reforms were never granted; 
so the Cubans again rebelled (1895), and formed a republic. 

American Interests in Cuba. Americans had invested 
much money in the plantations, mines and railroads in Cuba, 
and the United States carried on an extensive trade with the 
island. Of course our interests there were ruined by the struggle 
between Spain and the revolutionists. 

Young men of adventurous spirits joined military expeditions 
which the Cubans attempted to fit out in some of our ports. 
Only by vigilance and at considerable expense could our govern¬ 
ment check ihese expeditions. In fact, the bond of sympathy 
felt for a people struggling for liberty was so strong that many of 
our people believed the United States should interfere and stop 
the war. In response to a protest sent out by our government, 
Spain promised greater freedom to Cuba under a constitution; 
but the Cubans would now accept nothing short of independence. 

Reconcentration Camps. The war then went on with 
greater brutality than before; General Weyler, Spanish mili¬ 
tary governor, ruled the island with extreme cruelty. Wounded 
men and other prisoners were killed after fighting had ceased; 
peaceful citizens were murdered while at work, their dwellings 
were burned, and everything which might be of value to the 
fighting Cubans was destroyed. Women, children and old 
men, who had been left at home to cultivate the fields and raise 
the crops, were driven into camps and placed under military 
control. Probably 200,000 of these died of disease and starva¬ 
tion. Had the Spanish wished to depopulate the Island of 
Cuba, they could have taken no more effective way. A report 
of the condition of these unfortunate non-combatants so deeply 
moved the people of this country that $50,000 was given by 
Congress, and many thousands were sent by individuals, to 


Annexation of Islands — Spanish-American War. 445 

relieve the suffering, while members of the Red Cross Society 
headed by Clara Barton went to Cuba to minister to the sick 
and needy. 

General Weyler was finally succeeded by General Blanco, 
whose treatment of the Cubans was more humane, but no 
progress was made in restoring order and peace to the island. 

Destruction of the Maine. While the United States was 
negotiating with Spain with a view to a possible settlement of 
the Cuban question, the American battleship Maine, anchored 
in the harbor of Havana, was suddenly blown up, February 15, 
1898, and 264 sailors killed. The event naturally caused great 
excitement in the United States. Although a naval court of 
inquiry reported that the explosion was due to a submarine 
mine, the Spaniards claimed that they were not responsible 
for the disaster ;* but the Americans firmly believed that they 
were. . 

War Declared.—Military Preparations. Congress, con¬ 
vinced that Spain should forfeit her right to rule over Cuba, 
passed a resolution, April 19, 1898, declaring Cuba free, de¬ 
manding that Spain withdraw from the island, and authorizing 
the President to use the army and navy, if necessary, to enforce 
the demand. This was accepted by Spain as an act of war. 
She promptly gave our minister his passports, and recalled her 
minister from Washington. On April 25, Congress declared 
that “war exists” between Spain and the United States, and 
at the same time authorized the President to use the army and 
navy and to call upon the militia of the several states to the 
extent necessary to carry on the war. 

The regular army was increased, and 200,000 men were en¬ 
listed from the large number who volunteered. The forts along 
the Atlantic were strengthened and the harbors protected 
by mines. Congress borrowed $200,000,000 and passed a new 
internal revenue law, increasing both the rate of tax and the 
number of articles taxed. 

As it was apparent that the war would be a contest largely 

* In 1912 the United States government raised the Maine. An examination of the 
vessel proved that the first explosion came from the outside. 


446 


History of the United States. 





Winfield Scott Schley. 


of the navies, the Pacific squadron under Commodore George 
Dewey, then at Hong Kong, China, was 
ordered to destroy the Spanish fleet at 
the Philippine Islands, where the na¬ 
tives, like those in Cuba, were in re¬ 
bellion against Spain. Rear Admiral 
Sampson’s fleet blockaded Cuba, while 
Commodore Schley guarded the Atlan¬ 
tic coast with a “flying squadron.” 

Battle of Manila and Capture of 
the Philippines. A Spanish fleet of 
ten vessels, carrying 103 guns, lay in Manila Bay, protected 
by forts and mines. Before daylight on the morning of May 1, 
1898, Commodore Dewey’s fleet of six 
vessels, carrying 137 guns, steamed into 
the harbor, opened fire on the Spanish 
ships, and in four hours had gained one 
of the most brilliant naval battles in 
the world’s history. 

Every Spanish vessel was destroyed, 
the crews killed or captured, and the 
land batteries silenced, without the loss 

William Thomas Sampson. „ . . . , 

of a single American man or ship. 
Dewey then blockaded the city of Manila, and General Merritt 
was sent across the Pacific with 20,000 troops to occupy the 
Philippines. Dewey’s fleet and Mer¬ 
ritt’s army, aided by some of the native 
insurgents, defeated the Spanish land 
forces, and compelled the surrender of 
the city and 7,000 soldiers, August 13, 
1898. Thus the Philippines, which had 
been held by the Spaniards ever since 
their discovery by Magellan while cir- 
George Dewey. cumnavigating the globe, fell into the 
hands of the United States. For this brilliant victory Con¬ 
gress conferred a medal upon Dewey, promoted him to the 
rank of rear-admiral, and later ranked him admiral for life. 


Annexation of Islands — Spanish-American War. 447 

France, Germany and Austria were favorable to Spain. 
The attitude of Russia was doubtful, but Great Britain showed 
such active sympathy with the United States that intervention 
by the other nations was not considered wise. So Spain was 
left to fight her battles unaided. 

Destruction of Cervera’s Fleet, and Capture of Santi¬ 
ago. At the outbreak of the war Spain sent a fleet under 
Admiral Cervera to protect her interests in Cuba. There was 
much fear that it would make an attack on some of the cities 
along our coast; so orders were given to Sampson to.intercept 
and destroy Cervera’s fleet. After a long search it was dis¬ 
covered in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, well protected by 
mines and forts. The American fleets with Sampson in com¬ 
mand stood guard day and night at the entrance of the harbor, 
awaiting a chance to attack the enemy. Among other plans 
one was formed to close the narrow entrance to the harbor 
by sinking the coaling vessel Merrimac in the channel, and 
“bottle up” the Spanish fleet. On a dark night Ensign Hobson, 
aided by seven men, made the attempt, but the vessel was sunk 
in such a position that it only partially obstructed the entrance 
to one channel. 

An army of 18,000 men under General Shafter was hastened 
to Cuba and landed near Santiago, to capture the city. Among 
the troops, composed mostly of regular soldiers, was the famous 
cavalry regiment of volunteers known as “Rough Riders,” 
of which Leonard Wood was colonel and Theodore Roosevelt 
lieutenant-colonel. After severe fighting at San Juan Hill 
and El Caney, the Spaniards were driven into the inner lines 
of intrenchments at Santiago. Seeing that the city would soon 
be captured, Cervera made a dash from the harbor July 3rd, 
in a vain attempt to break through the blockading squadron. 
Every American ship in sight took up the chase and engaged the 
enemy in a great running fight. Every American sailor did 
his full duty, and the battle was short. In a few hours after 
leaving the harbor, every Spanish vessel was sunk or help¬ 
lessly stranded, 600 Spanish killed or wounded, and 1,000 taken 


448 


History of the United States. 


prisoners. No serious damage was done to our vessels, and 
but one man was killed. 

A few days later, July 14th, General Torel surrendered the city 
of Santiago, with 4,000 troops, and the eastern part of Cuba. 

The Treaty of Peace. The power of Spain was completely 
gone in the Philippines and the West Indies. Her navy was 
destroyed and her armies captured, so that no course was left 
but to end the war on the best terms she could secure. After 
the French minister, acting for Spain, had signed a provisional 
treaty, August 12, 1898, which ended hostilities, commissioners 
from the United States and Spain met at Paris and drew up the 
final treaty, which was signed December 10, 1898. By the 
provisions of this treaty— 

1. Spain gave independence to Cuba. 

2. Spain ceded Porto Rico, Guam and the Philippine Islands 
to the United States. 

3. The United States paid $20,000,000 to Spain for her 
property and sovereignty in the Philippines. 

Cost of the War. Measured by the frightful losses in the 
Civil War, those of the Spanish-American War were insignifi¬ 
cant. The number killed in the battle of Gettysburg alone 
was many times greater than the combined losses on both sides 
in all the battles on land and sea in the war with Spain. The 
national debt, however, was increased $400,000,000 by the 
issue of bonds; and the enlargement of the army and navy nec¬ 
essary to protect the island possessions, together with the ex¬ 
penses incident to our sovereignty there, have added much 
to the yearly cost of our government. 

Results. The main results of the war were: 

1. Acquisition of Territory. Porto Rico, Guam, and the 
Philippines. 

2. Expansion of American Commerce. Our trade with 
Cuba and Porto Rico has greatly increased, and the annexation 
of the Philippines, lying as they do on the border of Asia, has 
afforded us a greater opportunity for a wonderful expansion of 
commerce as well as given us a chance to exert a wider influence 
on the Orient. 


Annexation of Islands — Spanish-American War. 


449 
























































































































450 History of the United States. 

3v Extension of Free Government. To the Cubans came 
independence, and to the Philippines better government and 
greater opportunities. 

4. The War Helped to Develop a Closer Union. The 
bond of unity was strengthened among the people and the states. 
Volunteers came from all classes and from all sections—East, 
West, North, and South. By the side of Union soldiers and 
their sons were ex-Confederates and their sons, fighting against 
a common foe, while young men of wealth and social standing, 
like Theodore Roosevelt and Hamilton Fish, risked their lives 
by the side of the soldier of humble fortune. 

The war with Great Britain (1812-1814) was not supported 
by all sections; the Mexican War was supported almost wholly 
by the South; the Civil War was a contest Between the North 
and South; but the Spanish-American War had the support of 
all sections and all classes, and showed that our nation was 
bound together in sentiment and thought as never before. 

5. The United States Recognized as a World Pow^r. 
Our great victories on land and -sea amazed Spain and the great 
nations of Europe, which had looked upon our navy as of second 
class. Today the nations of the world recognize the strength 
of the. American navy and the skill of the men behind the guns. 

Europe thought that the United States began the war to seize 
Cuba, but when the republic was formed and the American 
troops were withdrawn, they learned that the United States had 
espoused the cause of Cuba for the sake of humanity instead of 
for the annexation of territory. 


Suggestions for Review. 

What was the Dingley Tariff Bill? Tell how the Hawaiian Islands be¬ 
came a part of the United States. The Samoan Islands. Tell of the 
Spanish rule in Cuba. What interests had Americans in Cuba? What 
were Reconcentration Camps? Tell of the destruction of the Maine. 
What action did Congress take? What preparations for war were made? 
Tell of the battle of Manila Bay. Tell of the battle of San Juan Hill. 
Tell of the defeat of Cervera’s fleet and the capture of Santiago. What 
three things were gained by the treaty of peace? Name four results of the 
war. Tellof the United State's as "a world power. 


CHAPTER XXXVII. 

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT SINCE 1860. 

INVENTIONS, COMMERCE, INDUSTRIES, EDUCATION, 
AND LITERATURE. 

Inventions since 1860. The common _ .saving,There is 
nothing new under the sun,” .has been disproved many Times 
by the marvelous inventions which have been made in recent 
years. The human mind has constantly been working out ndw 
ideas and applying them to the wants of man. Prior to 1860 
the total number of patents granted was only 43,431, and since 
that time over a million have been issued, of which 37,000 were 
granted in the year 1909. These patents include both new 
inventions and t improvements on old ones, .covering a wide 
range of subjects and ministering to 
the ease, comfort, protection, pleas¬ 
ure and efficiency of mankind. 

Some of the more important ones 
are: Systems of heating by air, hot 
water, and steam; the Bessemer 
process of converting iron into steel, 
not used extensively prior to 1867; 
artificial ice machinery; the type¬ 
writer, placed on the market in 
1874; typesetting and typecasting 
machines, perfected in 1890; the 
bicycle; the automobile; improved 
firearms; explosives; aeroplanes; 
railway safety appliances, such as 
airbrakes, automatic couplers, vestibule-coaches, automatic 
signals and switches; the phonograph; and many electrical 
appliances. 

Electricity. Remarkable progress has been made in the 
of electricity since 1860. The arc light was invented 
451 



use 




452 History of the United States. 

by Charles F. Brush in 1878, and about the same time Thomas 
A, Edison gave us the incandescent lamp. From these we have 
the modern lights for home, store, and street. As a motive 
power, through the dynamo and motor, electricity runs trolley 
and motor cars, and other wheeled vehicles, as well as fixed 
machinery. The telephone, first exhibited by Professor Alex¬ 
ander G. Bell in 1876, is another of the great wonders which 
have come into even more common 
use than the telegraph. To these 
achievements may be added the mar¬ 
vels of wireless telegraphy, invented 
by Marconi, and Rontgen’s (rent'gen) 
mysterious X-ray, which enables 
us to look through the living body 
and see the bones within, and thus 
locate foreign solid substances. 

Manufacturing. Of all our 
great industries, manufacturing has 
shown the most remarkable increase. 
An examination of the table below 
will show that while the farm prod¬ 
ucts were increasing four-fold, those 
of the factory have increased more than ten-fold. Great as is 
the value of our agricultural products, those of the factory are 
more than twice as great. We are now the greatest manufactur¬ 
ing nation in the world. Our products of the factory in 1895 
were twice as great as those of England, and one-third of those 
of all the nations of the world. 

Some of the greatest lines of manufacturing are the iron and 
steel industries, the textile industry, which includes weaving 
cotton, wool, silk, and all forms of cloth, and the shoe industry. 



1860 

1880 

1900 

1910 

Products of the farm . 

1,910,000,000 

2,212,540,000 

3,764,177,000 

8,926,000,000 

Products of mfng.... 

1,885,861,000 

5,369,579,000 

13,014,287,000 

20,672,000,000 

Miles of railroad. 

30,635 

93,267 

198,964 

234,885 

Wealth. 

16,159,000,000 

24,642,000,000 

88,517,000,000 

* 130,000,000,000 


♦Estimated for 1910. The nation next in wealth to the United States is Great Britain 
and Ireland, rated in 1910 at $80,000,000,000. 



Alexander G. Bell. 












National Development . 453 

Railroads Since 1860. The development of the various 
lines of industry necessitated a corresponding increase in rail¬ 
road facilities. The 30,600 miles in use in the United States 
in 1860 was increased to 235,000 miles in 1908, including many 
miles of double track and in some places a four-track line. 
Our railroads traverse almost every habitable part of the Union, 
over prairie and through valley, crossing desert places, span¬ 
ning broad rivers, winding through romantic gorges, climbing 
mountains and tunneling their crests, wherever business may 
be found or industry developed. 



Thirty Years op Progress in Locomotive-Building. 

The engine on the left was one of the largest in use in 1881. The one on the right 
was built by the Santa Fe Railway Company at Topeka, Kansas, in 1911, and is the 
largest engine in the world. Its length is over 120 feet and its weight is 850,000 lbs. 

The little old engine and coaches once used pale into in¬ 
significance when placed side by side with mammoth loco¬ 
motives and handsome trains of chair-cars, diners and Pull¬ 
mans. And more startling still is a comparison of Washington’s 
journey from Mount Vernon for his inauguration with a trip 
by special train of Roosevelt or Taft in a tour of the land. 

Mining. The mining industry is closely related to trans¬ 
portation and manufacturing. Coal is indispensable to the 
operation of railroad, factory and mill, and iron is an impor¬ 
tant element in all our modern machinery, railroads, bridges, 
and fire-proof buildings. Manufacturing has grown more 
rapidly where coal and iron are plentiful. For this reason, 
Pennsylvania and New York early became noted for manu¬ 
facturing, while Pittsburg became the center of the iron in¬ 
dustry. But with the discovery of iron, coal, petroleum and 
natural gas at various places, manufacturing spread rapidly 
into other sections. 





454 


History of the United States. 


The output of all our mines, which in 1860 was valued at 
$100,000,000, has increased until in 1908 it was valued at more 
than $2,000,000,000. 

Commerce since 1860. Commerce has kept pace with 
the remarkable increase of the products of the soil, mine, and 
factory. Imports in 1911 were over four times and exports over 
six times as great as in 1860. Before 1875 we were buying more 
from foreign countries than they were buying from us, but 
since that date we have been selling much more to foreign 
nations than they have been selling to us. An examination of 
the table below will show that exports in 1911 were $522,000,- 
000 more than imports. This sum is much greater than the 
total amount of exports or imports in 1860. The increase in 
commerce is due not alone to the increased production of soil, 
factory and mine, but also to improved means of transportation 
and to a desire on the part of the people for more and better 
things. 


Imports 

1860 

1880 

1900 

1911 

Imports. 

353,000,000 

668,000,000 

850,000,000 

1,527,000,000 

Exports. 

333,000,000 

835,000,000 

1,394,000,000 

2,049,000,000 


Shipping and the American Navy. Most of this vast 
trade is carried in foreign vessels. While the number of our 
vessels for coast trade has greatly increased since the Civil 



This picture gives a side view of the steamship Olympic, showing its relative length 
compared with ships of different periods: the Santa Maria , in which Columbus sailed ; the 
Mayflower, in which the Pilgrims came; the Savannah, the first steamship to cross the 
ocean; and the Kearsarge, which destroyed the Confederate cruiser Alabama. 



























National Development. 455 

War, our merchant marine for foreign trade has declined, being 
only one-third as great in 1909 as in 1860, although during the 
same time commerce has increased four-fold. Nine-tenths of 
our foreign trade in 1830 was carried in American vessels. 
After this date there was a marked decline, until in 1901 less 
than one-tenth of our foreign trade was carried by our ships. 

The American navy, however, makes a better showing. The 
greatest navy in the world belongs to England, but the United 
States and Germany are in a close race for second place. Our 
government in 1910 spent over $123,000,000 for the navy, which 
is $33,000,000 more than the total, cost of supporting the army 
and only $37,000,000 less than the money paid as pensions to 
old soldiers during the same year. Many persons believe that 
this vast sum could be better expended for internal improve¬ 
ments, education, etc., but the advocates of a strong navy think 
it is the best way to keep peace with foreign nations and at the 
same time secure our rights. 

The New South. Progress in the various lines of industry 
has not been confined to the East and West and North alone, 
but extends to the South as well. After the war, when the 
South began to adjust herself to the new conditions, she found 
that cotton and rice could be raised without slavery as well 
as with it. The cotton product in 1859, two years before the 
war, was 4,309,000 bales; in 1909 it was 10,000 000 bales.* 
Before the war the South had very little mining and manu¬ 
facturing, but now she works her rich mines of coal and iron, 
and spins and weaves much of her own cotton. From 1902 
to 1910, the cotton used in southern mills and factories was 
almost equal in amount to that used in northern mills. The 
value of all lumber cut in the United States in 1908 was $510,- 
000,000. Of this amount, fully one-half was cut south of the 
old Mason and Dixon line, and a large portion of it was used 
to build homes in the North. Hundreds of mills and factories 
dot the South. 

The remarkable growth of industries in the South was shown 
at the New Orleans Cotton Exposition, 1884, at the Atlanta 

* A bale of cotton weighs about 500 pounds. 


456 History of the United States . 

International Exposition, 1895, and at the Jamestown Expo¬ 
sition, 1907. 

Texas, the largest of the southern states, has had a re¬ 
markable growth. Her population increased from 818,000 in 
1870 to 3,896,000 in 1910, and her railroad mileage from 711 
miles in 1870 to 13,000 miles in 1908. The discovery of oil 
in vast quantities has added greatly to her prosperity. 

Agriculture. Agriculture forms the basis of all other in¬ 
dustries ; even life itself depends upon it. Without the farmer 
there would be no commerce, mining, or manufacturing. It 
is of especial interest and importance, therefore, to learn that 
the value of our agricultural products has increased four-fold 
since the Civil War. This is due in a large measure to the 
opening-up of new lands in the West; but the draining of 
marshes, the opening of irrigating plants, dry farming, the 
employment of improved machinery, the use of fertilizers,— 
all have helped to bring better yields from the soil. The average 
labor-power of a man on a farm, with the improved machinery, 
is three times as great as it was before the Civil War. The 
state agricultural colleges, together with the Department of 
Agriculture, which includes the Bureaus of Animal Industry, 
of Plant Industry, of the Soil, of Chemistry, and of Weather, 
have done much to educate the farmers and place farming on 
a scientific basis. And the end is not yet. The soil must be 
made to yield more abundantly; the growth of population and 
the consequent increase in the value of farm lands will demand 
this. Some of the problems the farmer must solve are : adapt¬ 
ing crops to different soils; crop rotation; fertilizing the land; 
cultivating the crops; improving live-stock; irrigating the soil; 
caring for agricultural machinery; dry farming; and marketing 
his products. 

Population 1860 to 1910. No other country in the world 
has seen such a rapid increase in its population as has the United 
States. From 31,000,000 in 1860 it grew to 92,000,000 in 
1910, an average increase for each decade of more than three 
times the total population when Washington became President. 
In 1810 the center of population was three miles east of Balti- 


National Development. 


457 


more. Since then it has been steadily moving westward along 
the 39th parallel. By 1860 it had moved half-way across the 
State of Ohio, and by 1910 it was in the city of Bloomington, 
Indiana, approximately thirty-nine miles farther west and seven- 
tenths of a mile farther north than in 1900. The advance to¬ 
ward the west is due largely to the increase of population in 
the Pacific coast states. Their distance from the center of 



The Center of Population Moves Westward Along the Line of the 39th Parallel. 


population is so great, that it gives them much greater weight 
than an equal advance in the populous states in the East, where 
the increase was really greater than in the West. 

The center of area, excluding Alaska and the Philippines, 
is in north-central Kansas, ten miles north of Smith Center, 
and 657 miles west of the center of population. The reason 
the center of population is so far east of the center of area is 
due largely to the fact that vast areas in the Rocky Mountain 
belt cannot be brought under cultivation, and that the East 
and Central West have greater facilities for manufacturing 
and commerce. A study of the following table will show the 
increase of population: 


1860 

1870 

1880 


TABLE OF POPULATION BY DECADES. 


31,443,321 

38,558,371 

50,155,783 


1890 

1900 

1910 


62,622,783 

75,994,575 

91,972,267 


Growth of Cities. The increase in cities has been greatly 
in excess of that of the country. In 1910 there were 229 cities 
each with a population of over 25,000 ; and of this number 
fifty had a population of over 100,000 each; eight of over 500,- 




















458 


History of the United States. 


000 each; and three of over 1,000,000 each. The greatest 
of these is New York City, which had by the census of 1910, 
4,766,000 people within its narrow limits,—a population greater 
than that of the rich and productive states of Kansas, Nebraska 
and Oklahoma taken together, or twice as great as the total 
population of the thirteen colonies in 1775; and its wealth at 
the same time was thirteen times as great as the total wealth 
of all the colonies at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. 
To provide food and clothing and to properly educate and gov¬ 
ern such a mass of people, many of whom are foreigners, are 
great and difficult problems. 

The steady and rapid increase in the proportion of urban 
population is shown by the accompanying table, taken from the 
government reports: 


PER CENT OF DISTRIBUTION. 



1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

Urban. 

29.5 

36.1 

40.5 

46.3 

Rural. 

70.5 

63.9 

59.9 

53.7 


By urban population here is meant persons living in cities and towns with 2,500 per¬ 
sons or more. 



View of New Amsterdam (New York), 1656. 


The growth of cities has not been confined to those in any one 
section of the country, but has extended to all parts of the 
United States. The highest percentage of increase in the last 
decade was in Oklahoma City, which grew from a town of 
10,037 in 1900 to a city of 64,205 in 1910, making an increase 
of nearly 540 per cent. In point of numerical increase, how¬ 
ever, New York City excels all others, having in a single decade 













National Development. 


459 



View of a Section of New York, 1912, Facing the Hudson. 


increased 1,229,000, which is more than the entire population 
of some states. 

Money in Use. The pupil should make a study of the dif¬ 
ferent kinds of money named in the table below, and be able 
to tell upon what conditions each is issued by the government. 
The number of dollars’ worth of silver certificates in circulation 
corresponds to the number of silver dollars held in the gov¬ 
ernment vaults. 


MONEY IN USE IN THE UNITED STATES, FEBRUARY 1, 1912. 



GENERAL STOCK OF 
MONEY IN XHE 
UNITED STATES. 

HELD IN TREASURY 
AS ASSETS OF THE 

GOVERNMENT. 

MONEY IN 
CIRCULATION. 

February 1, 1912 

• 

February 1, 1912 

February 1, 1912 

Gold coin (including bullion in 
Treasury). 

$1,803,282,321 

$164,195,516 

71,458,840 

7,522,937 

15,934,925 

21,775,660 

11,651 

9,547,034 

47,855,918 

$603,474,436 

964,153,529 

73,105,430 

468,659,075 

142,891,789 

3,045,349 

337,133,982 

693,806,050 

Gold Gert.ifirates. 

Standard Silver Dollars. 

565,222,367 

Silver Gertificates. 

SiiRsidiary Silver. 

164,667,449 

3,057,000 

346,681,016 

741,661,968 

Treasury Notes of 1890. 

United States Notes. 

National Bank Notes. 

Total. 

$3,624,572,121 

$338,302,481 

$3,286,269,640 


































460 


History of the United States. 


EDUCATION. 

With this marvelous growth of the industries of the nation 
and the rapid increase in the wealth and population, there has 
been a general diffusion of education and a corresponding in¬ 
crease in opportunities for learning. Nowhere else in the world 
has there been such a general interest in education. There is 
a growing sense that national strength and greatness must rest 
upon the intelligence and character of all the people. With this 
end in view, the means of educating the people have been 
multiplied and placed within easy reach of all persons. Chief 
and foremost among these is the school system, embracing the 
elementary school, high school, normal school, private denom¬ 
inational college, and the university; but newspapers, maga¬ 
zines and libraries have had a wonderful influence on the dif¬ 
fusion of knowledge. 

The School System. Strictly speaking there is no national 
system of education in the United States. Each state makes 
its own laws for creating, managing and supporting its schools. 
Under these laws, however, states have vied with each other 
in establishing the best system, and people have taxed them¬ 
selves in support of schools until in many places the money paid 
for school purposes is the chief item of taxation. 

The number of pupils enrolled in the public and private 
elementary schools in the United States during the year 1910 
was over 18,000,000, and the salaries paid for teaching these 
was nearly $250,000,000. The states have not only placed 
the public school within easy reach of the pupils, but nearly 
all of them have enacted laws providing for compulsory edu- 
cat on. 

The growth of high schools, colleges and universities is quite 
as remarkable as that of the elementary schools. The high 
schools have improved until they give a better training than 
colleges afforded a century ago, and the colleges and universities 
have advanced their standards accordingly. During 1910 the 
enrollment in colleges and universities was 184,000 and that 
of the secondary schools (high schools and academies) was 
1,131,000. 


National Development. 


461 


Some of the more recent educational movements include man¬ 
ual training, domestic science, commercial and industrial courses 
and university extension. 

Newspapers. The modern American newspaper, now an 
important factor in education, is almost wholly the product of 
the last fifty years. For nearly three and a half centuries after 
the invention of type by Gutenberg, but little or no progress 
was made in printing. In 1800 only four or five of the largest 
cities had daily papers. For many years drivers of mail- 
coaches, travelers, peddlers, and captains of river boats and 
sailing vessels carried reports bearing the news from town 
to town. 

With the introduction of the railroad and invention of the 
telegraph came increased facilities for getting news, but the 
process of printing with the hand-press was slow and expensive. 
Not until the general introduction of the cylinder presses 
(1830-1860) was there any great progress in newspapers and 
in printing. 

The great cost of getting the news induced a number of New 
York papers during the Civil War to form an agreement by 
which the same news should be sent to each of them, the cost 
being divided among those receiving the service. Hoping to 
reduce the cost still further, they began to sell news to editors 
of papers in other towns. From this sprang the Associated 
Press, the greatest agency in the 
world for collecting and distribut¬ 
ing news of current events. Within 
a few hours after an event occurs, 
full reports may be sent to every 
part of the world. 

Probably no greater progress has 
been shown in any line of industry 
than that of the advance from the 
little old wooden hand-press to the 

The Printing-Press Used by great Cylinder press, Composed of 
benjamin Franklin. more than 2,000 separate pieces and 

printing from a roll containing more than two miles of white 






462 " History of the United States. 

paper. Today there are more than 23,000 papers and many 
high-class magazines, which reach almost every household in 
the nation. 


A Modern Improved Hoe Printing-Press. 

This press prints, counts and folds copies of a thirty-page newspaper faster than a per¬ 
son can count them. 

Libraries. The history of libraries in America dates from 
the establishment of the Harvard College library in 1638, fol¬ 
lowed by the Yale and the William and Mary College libraries 
in 1700. Up to the year 1800 the largest library, in the United 
States had but little more than 18,000 volumes. In 1833 the 
first free circulating library was established, at Peterboro, 
New Hampshire. This paved the way for subsequently es¬ 
tablishing many free libraries, which are now found in nearly 
every city and in many towns. Hundreds of these are the 
result of the gifts of Andrew Carnegie. The scope and in¬ 
fluence of the libraries have been greatly extended. Not many 
years ago they were supposed to be used chiefly by students, 
but the modern library, like the public school, reaches all 
classes and is a factor in making good citizenship. 

The Library of Congress, at Washington, which has over 




National Development. 463 

1,000,000 volumes, takes first rank in this country. The build¬ 
ing is the largest and finest library building in the world. The 
Boston Public Library, with nearly 900,000 volumes, ranks next 
to the Congressional Library. 


The Library of Congress. 

This is the most beautiful and costly library building in the world. It contains more 
than 1,000,000 books and forty-five miles of shelving. By means of a tunnel, books may 
be sent from the Library to the Capitol, a quarter of a mile away, and placed in the hands 
of Senators and Renresentatives in three minutes after leaving the Library, 


The National Capitol Building. 


















464 


History of the United States. 


The National Capitol covers four acres. It cost, including 
the land, about $16,000,000, and was seventy-four years in 
course of construction. 

Here Congress meets, the Senate in one wing and the House 
of Representatives in the other. In the great rotunda under the 
dome are famous paintings and statues of illustrious men. 
Statuary Hall is the old Hall of Representatives, now dedicated 
as Memorial Hall. Here are placed statues of heroes and states¬ 
men of the Nation. Each state may contribute figures of two 
of her most illustrious deceased sons. 

NATIONAL LITERATURE, 1789-1912. 

Washington Irving, who was born in 1783, the same year 
that the treaty of peace with England was signed, has often 
been called “The Father of American Literature.” “The 
Sketch Book,” his first venture, is his greatest work. It con¬ 
sists of a series of romantic essays, tales and sketches. Some 
of these, like “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy 
Hollow,” illustrate American manners, customs and super¬ 
stitions; others, as “Westminster Abbey” and “Stratford-on- 
Avon,” deal with English scenes and memories; while others, 
like the “Alhambra,” detail the matchless beauties of Spain 
at the meridian of her glory. To biography he contributed 
“The Life of Columbus,” “The Life of Goldsmith,” and “The 
Life of Washington.” 

William Cullen Bryant was America’s first great poet. 
“ To a Waterfowl ” is spiritually uplifting; “ The Forest Hymn ” 
is grand; “Thanatopsis” is sublime, while “Seventy-six” 
throbs with its ardent love of country. 

James Fennimore Cooper pictured the Indian and the 
pioneer in the deathless “Leather Stocking Tales,” spun vivid 
sea-yarns, and won the distinguished title of “The American 
Walter Scott.” 

Edgar Allan Poe wrote “The Gold Bug,” “The Black 
Cat,” and fifty-eight other master tales of mystery, and “The 
Raven,” “Annabel Lee,” “The Bells,” and"thirty-seven other 


' National Development 


465 



Washington Irving, 
1783 - 1859 . 


William Cullen Bryant, 

1794 - 1878 . 


J. Fennimore Cooper. 

1789 - 1851 . 



Nathaniel Hawthorne, 

1804 - 1864 . 


Ralph Waldo Emerson, 

1803 - 1882 . 


John G. Whittier, 
1807 - 1892 . 



Henry W. Longfellow, 

1807 - 1882 . 


James Russell Lowell. 

1819 - 1891 . 


Oliver Wendell Holmes, 
1809 - 1894 . 











466 


History of the United States. 


poems. The tales are so enthralling and the poems fit words 
and meaning together so musically, that Poe probably deserves 
the distinction of being “ America’s greatest tale-writer and 
poet.” 

Nathaniel Hawthorne called his novels “romances, which 
can tell of marvelous circumstances” in the world of the human 
heart. So well does he path that world in “The Scarlet 
Letter,” “The Marble Faun,” and “ House of the Seven Gables,” 
that he is known as the “Puritan Shakespeare of New England.” 
Boys and girls know him best through “Grandfather’s Chair,” 
“The Great Stone Face,” “The Snow Image,” “Peter Parley’s 
Histories,” “The Wonder Book,” and “Tanglewood Tales.” 

Ralph Waldo Emerson occupies a place by himself as a 
philosopher. Like Franklin, he was a writer of proverbs; but 
the difference between the mysticism of Emerson and the 
practical nature of Franklin is finely illustrated by the motto 
of the former, “Hitch your wagon to a star,” and the homely 
suggestion of the latter that “An ounce of prevention is worth 
a pound of cure.” His greatest writings are essays upon such 
subjects as “Compensation,” “Love,” and “Behavior.” His 
poems are of unequal value, but some of them, like “The Con¬ 
cord Hymn” and “Rhodora,” are of the highest rank. 

John Greenleap Whittier was a writer of ballads and the 
poet of freedom. Every child is familiar with “Maud Muller,” 
“Barbara Frietchie,” “The Barefoot Boy,” “The Tent on the 
Beach,” and “Voices of Freedom.” His “Snow-Bound” has 
glorified the New England home-life in very much the same way 
that Burns’s “Cotter’s Saturday Night” has that of Scotland. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow expressed popular thought 
and feeling “in the simplest and most melodious manner.” 
All students of American history know his “Paul Revere’s 
Ride,” “Hiawatha,” “Evangeline,” and “The Courtship of 
Miles Standish.” The children are just as familiar with his 
“Psalm of Life,” “Excelsior,” “The Bridge,” and “The Village 
Blacksmith.” Indeed, the children know him so well that he 
has been called the children’s poet. But with the “Golden 
Legend,” the translation of Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” and 


National Development. 


467 


the multitude of his other poems, he appeals just as strongly 
to the mature and scholarly of our land and of Europe. 

Essayists and Poets. Oliver Wendell Holmes and James 
Russell Lowell may be> linked together as essayists and poets. 
When we think of Holmes's “Autocrat, “Professor,” and “Poet 
at the Breakfast Table," and Lowell's “Study Windows" and 
“Among My Books," we are likely to conclude these are their 
best works; but when we refresh ourselves with “The Cham¬ 
bered Nautilus," “The Last Leaf," “Old Ironsides," and “The 
Wonderful One-Hoss Shay" of the former, and the “Biglow 
Papers," “The Vision of Sir Launfal," “The Harvard Com¬ 
memoration Ode," and “The Present Crisis," of the latter, we 
are convinced that they are supreme as poets. 

Orators. The first sixty years of national life produced 
many great orators and public speakers, chief among whom were 
Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Phillips, Everett, and Lincoln. 

Historians. Prescott, Motley, Parkman, Hildreth, Ban¬ 
croft, Fiske, McMaster, Schouler, Wilson and Rhodes were 
authors distinguished for their historical writings. All but 
Prescott, Motley and Parkman wrote of the history of the 
United States. 

Literature Since the Civil War. Since the war we have 
had dialect and humorous verses from such writers as Riley, 
Carleton, Saxe, and John Hay; and, while Stedman, Stoddard 
and others have been verse critics, no great poets have ap¬ 
peared. 

The old love-story with its intense feeling has been replaced 
by novels of “purpose," “real" novels, “analytical" novels, 
“dialect" novels, and the whole series of problem studies 
masquerading under the name of fiction. 

To this post-war period belong the works of Lew Wallace, 
Edward E. Hale, Julian Hawthorne, Mary Johnston, Winston 
Churchill, and numerous other writers of fiction who came near 
achieving greatness, as well as those of America’s greatest 
humorist, Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain). 


468 


History of the United States . 

Suggestions for Review. 

What are patents? Of what value are they? Are many issued? Name 
some of the inventions made since 1860. Tell of the growth of manufac¬ 
turing, mining, commerce, shipping. What relation has railroad-building 
to the development of the industries of a country? Tell something of the 
great changes that have taken place in the South. What progress has 
been made in agriculture? What do you know of the increase in popula¬ 
tion since 1860? Discuss the westward movement of the center of popula¬ 
tion. Where is the center of area of the United States? Study the table 
of money in use in 1912, and tell something about the different kinds of 
money made by the government. 

What effect does education have upon the greatness of a nation? Name 
the chief agencies for diffusing education. Describe the school system, 
growth of newspapers, printing, and the increase of libraries. Name the 
principal poets and essayists, giving some of their writings. W T ho was 
called the “Father of American Literature”? Who is called the “chil¬ 
dren’s poet”? Name the orators and historians. Tell what you can of 
the writers since the Civil War. 

Tell something of Thomas A. Edison, Alexander G. Bell, Marconi. 


CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

RECENT PROBLEMS AND EVENTS. 


New Problems. The annexation of the Philippines and 
other islands brought the nation face to face with new problems. 
Hitherto all territory annexed, excepting Alaska, lay next to 
the United States, was sparsely settled, and invited immigration 
and development. Free and representative government was 
easily extended over it, and a better, richer and stronger nation 
was the result. But the annexation of islands of the seas, 
thousands of miles distant, densely populated with people, 
most of whom are uncivilized, presented a question in govern¬ 
ment which the United States had never before faced. 

This policy of acquiring and retaining territory remote from 
our borders is often referred to as imperialism, and has been 
opposed by a large number of persons. 

The President and Congress, acting for the nation, assumed 
the responsibility of extending the Stars and Stripes over Porto 
Rico, Guam, Hawaii, Samoa, and the Philippines; and with 
us now rests the duty of governing the islands, of developing 
their resources and industries, and of educating and training 
the people to the duties of citizenship. 

Cuba and Porto Rico. At the close of the war, Cuba was 
placed under the military rule of the United States, with Gen¬ 
eral Leonard Wood in command. Peace and order were re¬ 
stored, and steps taken to form a republic. A constitution, 
much like that of the United States, was framed by a convention 
of delegates elected by the Cubans. T. Estrada Palma was 
chosen the first president, and on May 20, 1902, the govern¬ 
ment of the island was transferred to the officers of the new 
republic. 

By agreement with Cuba, the United States reserved the 
right to interfere at any time to protect life, liberty and prop¬ 
erty, or to prevent foreign nations from getting control of 
the island. When an insurrection occurred in 1906, due to 

469 


470 


History of the United States. 


alleged frauds in an election, our government a second time 
placed Cuba under military rule. Peace was secured, a new 
election was called, and self-government restored January 28, 


1909. 


In 1900 civil government was granted to Porto Rico, as a 
territory of the United States. 

The Philippines. When the Filipinos learned that the 
United States intended to hold the islands and not give them 
independence, they made 
an unsuccessful attack on 



the American army under 
General Otis, at Manila. 
In the war which followed 
the natives were defeated 
in several battles and 
their forces scattered. 
Small bands continued 
for several years to carry 
on a kind of guerilla war¬ 
fare, but the capture of 
Aguinaldo, the Filipino 
leader, in 1901, by 
General Funston through 
a daring piece of strategy, 
ended all organized war 
against American rule. 


A commission headed 
by William H. Taft be- 


Philippine Islands. 


gan in 1900 to establish 

civil government in place of military rule, as fast as the 
islands were pacified. After the commission had finished 
its labors, Taft was appointed the first governor. He intro¬ 
duced a system of schools, and modern ideas of various kinds. 
The natives were gradually led into methods of self-government. 
The right to vote was given to those who could read and write 
English or Spanish, or owned $250 worth of property, or paid 
$15 yearly taxes. In 1907 the Filipinos were allowed to elect 


















Recent Problems and Events . 


471 


a law-making body, called the Philippine Assembly. The gov¬ 
ernment is, however, mainly conducted by a governor and com¬ 
mission of eight men appointed by the President of the United 
States. 

The islands, about 2,000 in number, have a population of 
over 7,000,000, and embrace 140,000 square miles of territory, 
an area greater than.the combined area of the New England 
States and New York. 

Chinese Outrages by Boxers. American interests in China 
were seriously threatened in 1900, when a secret society of 
Chinamen, called “Boxers,” began to murder missionaries and 
Christian Chinamen, and expected to kill or drive out all 
foreigners and put an end to foreign influence in China. The 
disorder spread rapidly and hundreds were slain, among them 
the German ambassador. The foreign ministers and other 
foreigners who took refuge in Pekin, the capital, were besieged 
by the Boxers and the regular Chinese army, and for two months 
all the refugees were in imminent danger of death. The United 
States, Japan and the European nations hurried troops to the 
scene; the allied armies fought their way to Pekin, and finally 
rescued the besieged. 

War was not declared against China, but the speedy arrival 
of troops from all the leading nations convinced the Chinese 
that such attacks upon peaceable foreigners must stop. For 
the destruction of life and property China was compelled to 
pay a vast sum of money ($334,000,000), and was required 
to execute some of the leading Boxers, restore order, and guar¬ 
antee safety to foreigners. 

Some of the European nations wished to take territory from 
China, but Secretary Hay, of the United States, insisted that 
China should be preserved intact, and that she should keep an 
open door for trade with all nations. 

The Peace Movement. Another problem of great impor¬ 
tance is the movement to procure universal peace among the 
nations. A Permanent International. Court of Arbitration was 
established at The Hague by the treaty of 1899, which was signed 
by twenty-five powers. Prominent men and able statesmen 


472 


History of the United States. 


in America as well as in other countries are lending their in¬ 
fluence to this cause. Among them is Andrew Carnegie, who 
donated a fund of $10,000,000, the revenue of which is to be 
used to promote peace. A number of cases have been tried 
and settled by the Hague Court—one of the most important 
being the Atlantic Fisheries question, which so long threatened 
peaceful relations between Great Britain and the United States. 

The advocates of peace are endeavoring to get all nations to 
disarm, and thus do away with the enormous expense of great 
navies and armies and remove the temptation to settle dis¬ 
putes by war. 

A glance at the cost of the wars of the United States, to say 
nothing of the terrible sacrifice of human life, will show the 
importance of this movement. The total expenditure of the 
government from Washington’s administration to 1911 was, 
in round numbers, $23,000,000,000. Of this sum, $17,000,- 
000,000,* or 74 per cent, was spent for war or as a result 



of war (war, pensions, interest on war debt, and army and 
navy in time of peace), and $6,000,000,000 or 26 per cent was 
spent for all other purposes. 


* For war, $7,169,990,000; navy, $2,808,000,000; pensions, $4,446,000,000; interest, 
$3,378,000,000, most of which was due to war expenses. 




Recent Problems and Events. 


473 


In 1911, in time of peace, 69 per cent of the total expenses of 
the government was paid for pensions and for maintenance of 
the army and navy, and 31 per cent for all other purposes. 
Cannot future expenditures be turned to better use? 

Gold Standard Act, 1900. After the Specie Resumption 
Act went into effect (January 1, 1879), the Secretary of the 
Treasury was required to redeem greenbacks in coin (gold or 
silver). Up to this time all redemptions had been made in 
gold, but there was a possibility that sometime the Secretary 
might redeem the notes in silver, and thus disturb the finances 
of the nation. To avoid this, a new act was passed in 1900, 
called the Gold Standard Act, which provided: 

1. That the gold dollar shall be the standard unit of value, and 
that all forms of money issued or coined shall be kept “at a 
parity of value” with gold. 

2. That United States Notes and the Treasury Notes 
shall be redeemed in gold coin, and that a fund of $150,000,000 
in gold shall be set apart for this purpose. 

This act is a pledge on the part of the government that 
every dollar in paper and silver will continue to circulate for 
the same number of dollars’ worth of gold. 

Campaign of 1900. In the campaign of 1900 there were 
eight presidential nominees, and eleven nominating conven¬ 
tions were held. These conventions were the Republican, 
Democratic, Middle of the Road, People’s, Prohibition, United 
Christian, Silver Republican, Social Labor, Social Democratic 
and National parties, and the Anti-Imperial League. The 
Republicans nominated McKinley-and Roosevelt and favored 
the gold-standard law, the retention of the Philippines, and the 
construction of an isthmian canal. The Democrats nominated 
W. J. Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson. Their platform de¬ 
nounced imperialism and trusts, and favored the isthmian 
canal and the free coinage of silver at the rate of 16 to 1. Mc¬ 
Kinley and Roosevelt were elected by a large majority. 

Assassination of President McKinley. While President 
McKinley was a guest at the Pan-American exposition at Buf¬ 
falo, he was given a public reception in the Temple of Music, 


474 


History of the United States. 


and vast crowds flocked to greet him. Among the number was 
an anarchist named Czolgosz, who with a pistol concealed under 
a handkerchief shot the President twice while pretending to 
shake hands with him. After lingering eight days, McKinley 
died, September 14, 1901, amidst the grief of a nation. The 
assassin was executed a few weeks later. 

Theodore Roosevelt, by virtue of his position, succeeded to 
the office of President. 


ROOSEVELT’S ADMINISTRATION, 1901-1909. 

Theodore Roosevelt. Before Theodore Roosevelt became 
President he had already attracted attention for efficient services 
as National Civil Service Commis¬ 
sioner, Police Commissioner of New 
York City, Assistant Secretary of 
the Navy, as an officer in the Span¬ 
ish War, and as Governor of New 
York. He also had won reputation 
as a writer of history and biography. 

After becoming President, he soon 
entered upon an aggressive policy 
which made him one of our great 
chief executives. His demand for 
honesty and purity in office, his 
vigorous foreign policy, his efforts 
to make trusts and corporations as 
well as individuals respect the laws, and his desire to secure 
equal justice for rich and poor, high and low, combined with 
a striking personality, rendered him a great favorite among the 
masses and compelled the respect of all. 

The Panama Canal. The importance of a canal con¬ 
necting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans between the North 
and South American continents had long been recognized. 
No one undertook the gigantic task, however, until De Lesseps, 
at the head of a French company, began the work, 1881. After 
spending more than $200,000,000 and finishing only a fifth of 
the work, the company failed. 



Theodore Roosevelt. 


Recent Problems and Events. 


475 



The canal is 40§ miles long from shore to shore, has an average bottom width of 649 
feet, and a minimum depth of 41 feet. The cities of Panama and Colon, though in the 
canal zone (the former at the Pacific, the latter at the Atlantic end of the canal), are not 
under the control of the United States. The canal will probably be completed by 1915. 













































476 


History of the United States. 


In 1850 the United States had made a treaty with Great 
Britain, called the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, by which both 
nations pledged that neither would alone build an isthmian 
canal, but that both together might do so. As our country 
expanded in territorial possessions and grew in wealth and com¬ 
merce, it became apparent that an isthmian canal would be of 
more importance to the United States than to any other na¬ 
tion. After frequent attempts, the Clayton-Bulwer treaty was 
abrogated by the rat fication, in 1901, of a new treaty, called 
the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, which left the United States free 
to build the canal alone. This it decided to do. 

Two routes were considered, one through the isthmus of 
Panama, the other through Nicaragua. After careful investi¬ 
gation, the President selected the Panama route. The United 
States then purchased the rights of the French Company for 
840,000,000. A treaty made with Colombia, agreeing to give 
us a right of way, was rejected by the Colombian senate (Au¬ 
gust, 1903). As a result of this, Panama, a state of Colombia, 
seceded from Colombia and formed a new republic, which was 
recognized and supported by the United States. In February, 
1904, the United States made a treaty with Panama, with these 
important provisions: 

1. Panama gave a strip of land ten miles in width across the 
isthmus for canal purposes, which was to be under the perpetual 
control of the United States. 

2. For this territory the United States paid $10,000,000 cash, 
and agreed to pay $250,000 yearly, beginning nine years after 
the date of the treaty. 

3. The United States guaranteed the independence of Pan¬ 
ama, which meant that if Colombia or any other nation should 
attempt to seize Panama by force of arms, the United States 
would aid the new republic. 

Anthracite Coal Strike. In the spring of 1902 a great 
strike took place in the anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania. 
More than 147,000 men quit work, and as the strike continued 
on toward winter there began to be serious suffering for want 
of fuel. The President induced the strikers and the mine- 


Recent Problems and Events. 


477 


owners to submit their troubles to arbitration, and a commis¬ 
sion appointed for that purpose brought about a compromise 
which ended the strike. 

The Alaskan Boundary. By a treaty of 1825 between 
Russia and Great Britain, the boundary line separating Alaska 
and Canada was defined, 
but not located. When 
we purchased Alaska, 

Russian rights were of 
course transferred to the 
United States. The dis¬ 
covery of gold in the Klon¬ 
dike and Yukon regions 
made the location of a 
definite boundary be¬ 
tween Alaska and British 
America very important, 
but when an attempt was 
made to fix the line, 
trouble arose between the 
United States and Can¬ 
ada. The claims of the 
latter nation would have 
given them several water 
outlets to the ocean along 
the Alaskan shore. After 
some discussion, the 
question was referred for settlement to a commission of six 
persons, three from the United States, two from Canada, and 
one from England. The commissioners met in London, 1903, 
and, by a vote of four to two, gave a decision very largely in 
favor of the United States, and denying the Canadians an out¬ 
let to the ocean. With praiseworthy fairness of mind, the 
British representative voted with our commissioners against 
the claims of his own country. 

Department of Commerce and Labor, 1903. The great 
growth of commerce and the importance of our various in- 

















478 


History of the United States. 


dustries in their relation to labor and the people, led Congress, 
on the advice of the President, to create a new cabinet position, 
called the Department of Commerce and Labor (1903). The 
province and duty of the department is “to foster, promote and 
develop foreign and domestic commerce, the mining, manu¬ 
facturing, shipping and fishing industries, the labor interests 
and the transportation facilities of the United States.” The 
Bureau of Corporations, which was created to regulate trusts 
and corporations, is a part of this department. 

St. Louis Exposition, 1904. A great industrial exposition 
was held in St. Louis in 1904, commemorating the one-hun¬ 
dredth anniversary of the purchase of Louisiana. Like the 
World’s Fair at Chicago (1893), this was an exhibition on a 
vast scale of things useful and beautiful, from every clime and 
almost every nation in the world. The estimated cost of 
buildings and management was $44,500,000; the total attend¬ 
ance was nearly 19,000,000. 

Other industrial expositions on a smaller scale have been 
held at Buffalo, Charleston, Jamestown (Virginia), Portland 
(Oregon), Seattle, Omaha, New Orleans, and Atlanta. 

Measures to Protect Public Health. Great progress has 
been made in the opening years of the twentieth century for the 
preservation of public health. Men are realizing more and 
more that it is quite as important to protect the public health 
by sanitary regulations as it is to protect “home industries” 
by tariff laws. The passage of a “meat inspection” bill, which 
provides for an inspection of stock-yards and packing-houses, 
and requires a government label on all meats, has resulted in 
better and cleaner methods in the packing industry. A na¬ 
tional pure-food law was passed in 1906, which places a heavy 
penalty on those found guilty of adulterating or mislabeling 
foods or drugs. 

Organized warfare has been made on infectious and con¬ 
tagious diseases, particularly tuberculosis. For two decades 
after the discovery of the consumption bacillus by Dr. Koch, 
1882, no great progress was made toward preventing the dis¬ 
ease, the most destructive of all human ills; but in 1904 a 


Recent Problems and Events . 


479 


national association was formed for the study and prevention 
of tuberculosis. Since then numerous societies have been 
organized and measures taken to educate the public in methods 
of preventing and treating this disease. 

Many , states have passed child-labor laws, forbidding the 
employment of young children in various lines of industry, 
and safeguarding them in youth. Life has been made more 
secure by requiring the construction of fire-escapes upon large 
buildings and by improved devices for transportation; and 
in general the public welfare has been greatly improved by 
progressive attempts at social betterment. 

Election of 1904. In the election of 1904, Theodore Roose¬ 
velt and Charles W. Fairbanks were nominated by the Re¬ 
publicans, and Judge Alton B. Parker and Henry G. Davis 
by the Democrats. The restriction of trusts and tariff re¬ 
vision were the leading issues, the Democrats taking a more 
radical stand than the Republicans. Both parties spoke for 
the ultimate independence of the Philippines. As in 1900, a 
great number of minor parties made nominations. Roosevelt 
was reelected by the greatest majority of popular votes ever 
given to any candidate.* He carried every state north of the 
Mason and Dixon line, and in addition, Maryland and Mis¬ 
souri. 

Efforts to Advance the Interests of the People. This 
popular indorsement of President Roosevelt rather led him to 
strengthen his strenuous program. He secured the passage 
of the Hepburn Rate Act (see p. 431), commenced suits against 
law-breaking trusts, secured the passage of a pure food and 
drugs act (see p. 478), urged the conservation of the natural 
resources of the nation, greatly improved the consular service, 
promoted civil-service reform by placing a large number of 
positions under civil service, and urged the reclamation of vast 
areas of arid lands in the West by the introduction of irrigating 
plants on a large scale by government aid. 

By his efforts Russia and Japan, which were engaged in a 

* Roosevelt received 7,643,000 votes and Parker received 5,077,000. 


480 


History of the United States. 


bloody war for the possession of Korea and the ports of Man¬ 
churia, were brought to conclude a treaty of peace, 1905. 

A Great Naval Cruise. An event attracting wide atten¬ 
tion in 1907 was the cruise around the world of sixteen Amer¬ 
ican battleships, with a flotilla of torpedo boats and armed 
cruisers. They sailed from Hampton R6ads around South 
America to San Francisco, thence to Australia, Asia, and Eu¬ 
rope, stopping at many important ports on the way. After 
an absence of fourteen months they returned, having traversed 
over 45,000 miles. 

The Emergency Act. In 1908 an act called the Emergency 
Act was passed, which provided that by giving security to the 
government, in case of money stringency, an additional volume 
of bank notes might be issued. 

Presidential Election, 1908. In the campaign of 1908, 
the Democrats for the third time nominated W. J. Bryan for 
President, and named John W. Kern for Vice-President. There 
was a strong popular demand that Roosevelt should again 
be nominated, but he declined to be a candidate and gave his 
influence to secure the nomination of William H. Taft. James 
S. Sherman was nominated for Vice-President. 

Trust regulation and tariff revision were leading issues. 
Both party platforms favored a downward tariff revision. The 
Republican party declared in favor of strengthening the Sher¬ 
man Anti-Trust law, while the Democrats favored more rad¬ 
ical laws against trusts. Other questions—among them capital 
and labor, injunctions, banking and currency, railroad regu¬ 
lation, waterways, national resources, income tax, election of 
United States senators by popular vote, and publicity of cam¬ 
paign expenses—were discussed. Six other parties, the Pro¬ 
hibition, People’s, Social Labor, Socialist, United Christian, 
and Independent, named candidates. Taft and Sherman were 
elected, having received 362 electoral votes, while Bryan and 
Kern received 157. 


Recent Problems and Events. 


481 


ADMINISTRATION OF WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT, 1909-1913. 

Tariff Revision. The Payne-Aldrich law, 1909. Many 
persons, believing that the high cost of living was due largely 
to the high duties of the Dingley 
Act, demanded a reduction of these 
rates. In accord with these wishes 
and with party-platform promises, 

President Taft called a special ses¬ 
sion of Congress, with the result 
that a new act, called the Payne- 
Aldrich law, was passed. This act 
lowered the rates of a number of 
articles, raised others, but left most 
of them unchanged. A majority of 
the people were not satisfied with the 
action of Congress. They believed 
the party had not redeemed its promise, and that the law was 
shaped more in the interests of the trusts than in favor of the 
people. 

One feature of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff is a tax on corpora¬ 
tions, requiring them to pay to the government one per cent 
of their net earnings in excess of $5,000. 

Proposed Amendments to the Constitution. Certain re¬ 
forms demanded by the people cannot be secured without 
amendments to the Constitution. Among these are the elec¬ 
tion of United States senators by a direct vote of the people, 
and a tax on incomes. 

The Income Tax. Congress, in July, 1909, by the neces¬ 
sary two-thirds vote, adopted an amendment authorizing an 
income tax. If the legislatures of three-fourths of the states 
now ratify the amendment, as appears will be the case from 
the number that have already done so, it will become a part 
of the Constitution. The advocates of the income tax, which 
is a form of direct tax, believe that people who have amassed 
vast fortunes should be required to pay a percentage of their 
yearly income to help support the government, and thus bear 



William Howard Taft. 



482 History of the United States. 

an added burden of taxation because of their greater ability 
to pay. 

Election of Senators by Popular Vote. The legislatures 
of two-thirds of the states have passed resolutions proposing 
an amendment which provides for the election of United States 
senators by direct vote of the people. The amendment must 
be approved by Congress and then ratified by three-fourths 
of the states before it will become a part of the Constitution. 
People believe that under this system of election, senators will 
more nearly represent the mass of the people, and be less under 
the influence of corporations and trusts. 


President Taft signing the Act that gave Statehood to Arizona (February 14, 1912), 
and added the forty-eighth star to the American flag. 

New Mexico and Arizona. New Mexico and Arizona, 
the last of the territories lying within continental United States, 
were admitted to the Union.as states in 1912.- It is of interest 
to note that while they were the last to be admitted, the regioti 
within their limits was among the first explored. An army of 
conquest under Coronado passed through it in 1540, nearly four 
centuries ago, and DeEspejo planted a Spanish settlement at 





Recent Problems and Events. 


483 


Santa Fe a number of years before the English landed at James¬ 
town and Plymouth Rock. 

The admission of New Mexico and Arizona completes an 
unbroken Union of forty-eight states extending from the At¬ 
lantic to the Pacific, and, with the exception of Alaska, the 
island possessions and the isthmian canal zone, includes all the 
territory of the Republic. 


Suggestions for Review. 

What new problems did the United States have to solve after the an¬ 
nexation of the Philippines? What form of government was established 
in Cuba at the close of the Spanish-American War? What kind of gov¬ 
ernment was established in the Philippines? Tell of the Boxer difficulty 
in China. What was the Gold Standard Act of 1900? Who was elected 
President in 1900? Tell of the assassination of President McKinley. 
W T ho became President? Give a history of events leading to the construc¬ 
tion of the Panama Canal. Of what benefit will it be to the United States? 

How had^ Roosevelt won attention before becoming President? What 
is the department of Commerce and Labor? Give an account of the 
Alaskan boundary dispute. What was the St. Louis Exposition? What 
measures have been taken to protect health? Tell of the naval cruise of 
1907. Who was elected President to succeed Roosevelt? 

What was the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill? What amendments to the 
United States Constitution have recently been proposed? Of what 
benefit would they be to the people? What inventions have saved the 
people much labor? How is electricity used to aid commerce? Manu¬ 
facturing? Has commerce grown? Has mining? Has agriculture? Has 
manufacturing? Tell of the natural wealth. Of the new South. 






















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v- 
































THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

When, in the* course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate 
and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle 
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created 
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed;, that, when¬ 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the 
right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new govern¬ 
ment, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers 
in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and 
happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long es¬ 
tablished should not be changed for light and transient causes; and ac¬ 
cordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to 
suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses 
and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to 
reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, 
to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future 
security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such 
is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems 
of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a 
history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object 
the establishment of* an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove 
this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to 
them. 


487 


488 


Appendix. 


He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large dis¬ 
tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of repre¬ 
sentation in the legislature,—a right inestimable to them, and formidable 
to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom¬ 
fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the 
sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others 
to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, 
have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state remain¬ 
ing, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without 
and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners, refusing 
to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the con¬ 
ditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent 
to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the 
consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to, the civil powerT 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to 
our constitutions and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his assent to 
their acts of pretended legislation: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders 
which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury -; 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring prov¬ 
ince, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its 
boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for 
introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; 


The Declaration of Independence. 489 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection 
and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies- of foreign mercenaries to 
complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny already begun 
with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most 
barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, 
to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their 
friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored 
to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, 
whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, 
sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in 
the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only 
be repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act 
which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. 
We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature 
to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them 
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured 
them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, 
which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We 
must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, 
and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace 
friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in 
General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority 
of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That 
these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and 
that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain 
is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent 
states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, 
establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent 
states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a 


490 


Appendix 


firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge 
to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and 
signed by the following members: 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Josiah Bartlett. 

William Whipple. 
Matthew Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 

Samuel Adams. 

John Adams. 

Robert Treat Paine. 
Elbridge Gerry. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Stephen Hopkins. 
William Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Roger Sherman. 

Samuel Huntington. 
William Williams. 
Oliver Wolcott. 

NEW YORK. 

William Floyd. 

Philip Livingston. 
Francis Lewis. 

Lewis Morris. 


John Hancock. 

NEW JERSEY. 

Richard Stockton. 

John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson. 
John Hart. 

Abraham Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert Morris. 
Benjamin Rush. 
Benjamin Franklin. 
John Morton. 

George Clymer. 
James Smith. 

George Taylor. 

James WTlson. 

George Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

C.esar Rodney. 
George Read. 

Thomas M’Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel Chase. 
William Paca. 


Thomas Stone. 

Charles Carroll, of Car¬ 
rollton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George Wythe. 

Richard Henry Lee. 
Thomas Jefferson. 
Benjamin Harrison. 
Thomas Nelson, Jr. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee. 
Carter Braxton. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

William Hooper. 

Joseph Hewes. 

John Penn. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

* 

Edward Rutledge. 
Thomas Heywood, Jr. 
Thomas Lynch, Jr. 
Arthur Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 

Button Gwinnett. 

Lyman Hall. 

George Walton. 


Resolved, That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several as¬ 
semblies, conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the 
several commanding officers of the continental troops; that it be pro¬ 
claimed in each of the United States, at the head of the army. 


Historical Tables. 


491 


A TABLE OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


Dates 

No. 

Name 

Gross 
Area in 
Square 
Miles* 

Population 
in 1910 

Adopted the 





Constitution 





1787, Dec. 7. 

1 

Delaware. 

2,050 

202,322 

1787, Dec. 12. 

2 

Pennsylvania. 

45,215 

7,665;111 

1787, Dec. 18. .. . 

3 

New Jersey. 

7,815 

2,537,167 

1788, Jan. 2. 

4 

Georgia. 

59,475 

2,609,121 

1788, Jan. 9. . . . 

5 

Connecticut. 

4,990 

1,114,756 

1788, Feb. 6. . 

6 

Massachusetts. 

8,315 

3,336;416 

1788, April 28. 

7 

Maryland. 

12,210 

1,295,346 

1788, May 23. 

8 

South Carolina. 

30,570 

1,515,400 

1788, June 21. 

9 

New Hampshire. 

9,305 

430,572 

1788, .Tune 2 5 

10 

Virginia. 

42,450 

2,061,612 

1788, July 26 

11 

New York. 

49,170 

9,113;279 

1789, Nov. 21 

12 

North Carolina. 

52,250 

2,206,287 

1790, May 29 

13 

Rhode Island. 

U250 

542,610 

Admitted to the 



Union 





1791, March 4 

14 

V ermont. 

9,565 

355,956 

1792, .Tunc 1 

15 

Kentucky. 

40,400 

2,289,905 

1 , .Turin 1 

16 

Tennessee. 

42,050 

2,184,789 

1803, Feb. 19 

17 

Ohio. 

41,060 

4,767,121 

1812, April 30 

18 

Louisiana. 

48,702 

1,656,388 

1S16 Dec 11 

19 

Indiana. 

36,350 

2,700,876 

1817, Dec. 10 

20 

Mississippi. 

46,810 

1,797,114 

1818 Dec 3 

21 

Illinois. 

56,650 

5,638,591 

1819 Dec 14 

22 

Alabama. 

52|250 

2,138,093 

1 £20 l\T«rr*h 1 n 

23 

Maine. 

33,040 

742,371 


24 

Missouri. 

69,415 

3,293,335 


25 

Arkansas. 

53,850 

1,574,449 

1837 Jan 26 

26 

Michigan.» 

58,915 

2,810,173 


27 

Florida. 

58,680 

751,139 

1845’ Dec 29 

28 

Texas. 

265,780 

3,896,542 

1846 Dec 28 

29 

Iowa. 

56,025 

2,224,771 

1848 Mav 29 

30 

Wisconsin. 

56,040 

2,333;860 


31 

California. 

158,360 

2,377,549 

1858 Mav 11 

32 

Minnesota. 

83,365 

2,075,708 

1859 Feb 14 

33 

Oregon. 

96,030 

672,765 

1861 Jan 29 

34 

Kansas. 

82,080 

1,690,949 


35 

West Virginia. 

24,780 

1,221,119 

1864 Oct 31 

36 

Nevada. 

110,700 

81,875 

1867 March 1 

37 

Nebraska. 

77,510 

1,192,214 


38 

Colorado. 

103,925 

799,024 

1889 Nov 2 

39 

North Dakota. 

70,795 

577,056 

1889 Nov 2 

40 

South Dakota. 

77,650 

583,888 

1889 Nov 8 

41 

Montana. 

146,080 

376,053 

1889 Nov 11 

42 

W ashington. 

69,180 

1,141,990 


43 

Idaho . 

84,800 

325,594 

1890 Julv 10 

44 

Wyoming. 

97,890 

145,965 


4n 

Utah . .... 

84,970 

373,351 

1907 Nov 16 

46 

Oklahoma. 

70,057 

1,657,155 


47 

New Mexico. 

122;5S0 

327,301 

1912 Feb 14 

48 

Arizona. 

113,020 

204,354 

Organized 




1868 Julv 27 


Alaska. 

590,844 

64,356 



District of Columbia. 

70 

331,069 



Hawaii. 

6,449 

191,909 

Under Civil Govern- 


S Porto Rico. 

3,435 

1,118,012 

ment . 


^Philippines. 

115,026 

7,635,426 


* Gross area includes water as well as land surface. 

These statistics are taken from the Thirteenth Census of the United States. 























































































































A TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS. 


492 


Appendix. 


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READING AND REFERENCE BOOKS. 


Teachers are frequently in search of books which will aid them in their 
work. The list below contains many valuable historical works, from 
which teachers and pupils may wish to select books, either for home use 
or for reference works in the school library. 

Letters addressed to the publishers at the following addresses will 
reach them: 


American Book Co., Chicago and New 
York. 

D. Appleton & Co., New York, N. Y. 

A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, N. Y. 
Century Co., New York, N. Y. 

Crane & Co., Topeka, Ivans. 

Dodd, Meade & Co., Chicago, Ill. 

A. Flanagan, Chicago, Ill. 

Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. 

Harper & Bros., New York, N. Y. 
Historical Pub. Co., Topeka, Kans. 


Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass. 
Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. 

J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 
Longmans, Green & Co., New York, N. Y. 
Macmillan Co., New York, N. Y. 

McClure, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Putnam’s Sons, New York, N. Y. 

Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, III. 
Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, N. Y. 
Silver, Burdette & Co., New York, N. Y. 


• Title 

Author 

Publisher 

Price 

Discoverers and Explorers. 

. Morris. 

. J. B. Lippincott. 

$1.25 

American Explorers. 

. Higginson. . 

.Lee & Shepherd. 

1.50 

The Discovery of America (2 vols.). 

. Fiske. 

. Houghton-Mifflin. 

4.00 

American Explorers. 

. Gordy. 

. Scribner’s Sons. 

.50 

The Struggle for a Continent. 

. (Edited from 


the writings of Francis Parkman). 

.Edgar. 

. Little, Brown & Co. 

1.50 

The Red Man and the White Man. 

. Ellis. 

.Little, Brown & Co. 

3.50 

The Story of the Thirteen Colonies. 

.Guerber.. . . 

.American Book Co. 

.65 

Old Times in the Colonies. 

. Coffin. 

. Harpers. 

2.00 

The English Colonies in America. 

. Lodge. 

. Harpers. 

3.00 

The Colonies. 

. Thwaites. .. 

. Longmans. 

1.25 

American Hero Stories. 

. Tappan.... 

. Houghton-Mifflin. 

1.00 

Heroes of Progress in America. 

. Morris. 

. Lippincott. 

1.25 

Old Virginia and Her Neighbors (2 vols.). 

. Fiske. 

. Houghton-Mifflin... .each 

4.00 

Home Life in Colonial Days. 

. Earle. 

. Macmillan. 

2.50 

Our First Century. 

Eggleston. . 

.A. S. Barnes & Co. 

1.20 

Poems of American History . 

. Stevenson. . 

.Houghton-Mifflin . 

3.00 

How our Grandfathers Lived. 

Hart. 

. Macmillan. 

.60 

History of the United States (6 vols.). 

. Schouler.... 

.Dodd, Mead & Co. . .each 

2.25 

Larger History of the United States. 

. Higginson. . 

. Harper. 

2.00 

The Making of the Ohio Valley. 

Drake. 

.Scribner & Sons. 

1.50 

From Trail to Railway. 

. Brigham. . . 

. Ginn & Co. 

.60 

The Conquest of the Southwest. 

Brady. 

.Appleton. 

1.50 

Expansion of America. 

Sparks. 

.Scott-Foresman. 

2.00 

France and England in the United States, 



various titles (9 vols.). 

Parkman. . . 

.Little, Brown & Co, from 1.50 up- 

Outlines of U. S. History. 

Foster. 

. Crane & Co. 

.25 


493 

































































494 


Appendix. 


Title 

Author 

Publisher 


Price 

Outlines of U. S. History. 

Hall. 

.A. Flanagan. 


$0.30 

Historical Outline Maps. 

Foster. 

. Historical Pub. Co.. 


Select Charters and Documents (1606- 





1775). 

MacDonald. 

. Macmillan. 


2.00 

Select Documents (1776-1861). 

MacDonald. 

. Macmillan. 


2.00 

Select Statutes and Documents (1861- 





1898). 

. MacDonald. 

. Macmillan. 


2.00 

Source Book. 

Hart. 

. Macmillan. 


.60 

A Book of Forty Maps on American His 





tory. 

Foster. 

. Historical Pub. Co. 


1.00 

Illustrative Historical. 

. Foster. 

. Rand-McNally Co.. 


20.00 

The American Nation Series (27 vols.). . . 

.Various 





authors... 

. Harpers. 


1.80 

American Statesmen (33 vols.). 

, Various 





authors... 

. Houghton-Mifflin.. . 

. each 

1.25 

Winning of the West (4 vols.). 

, Roosevelt... 

. Putnam. 

.each 

2.50 

Stories of the Great West. 

, Roosevelt... 

. Century. 


.60 

The American Revolution (2 vols.). 

Fiske. 

. Houghton-Mifflin. . . 

.each 

4.00 

The American Revolution. 

Leckv. 

. Appletons. 


1.25 

“True History of the Revolution”. ....... 

, Fisher. 

. Lippincott. 


2.00 

American Fights and Fighters. 

. Brady. 

. McClure. 


1.50 

Formation of the Union. 

Hart. 

. Longmans. 


1.25 

Decisive Battles of America.'. 

. Hitchcock. . 

. Harpers. 



Side Lights of American History (2 vols.).. 

Elson. 

. Macmillan. 


. 75 

The Making of the Great West. 

Drake. 

. Scribners. 


1.50 

Life in the Eighteenth Century. 

. Eggleston.. . 

.A. S. Barnes. 


1.20 

Louisiana Purchase.. 

. Hitchcock. . 

.Ginn Sc Co. 


. 75 

Economic History of the United States... . 

. Bogart. 

. Longmans. 


1.75 

Industrial History of the L T nited States... . 

.Coman . . . . 

.Macmillan. 


1.25 

History of the United States. 

, Elson. 

. Macmillan. 


1.75 

Financial History of the United States. . . 

. Dewey. 

. Longmans, Green & Co... 

2.00 

History of the United States (10 vols.). .. 

. Bancroft. . . 

. Appletons. 


15.00 

History of the American People (5 vols.). . 

.Wilson. 

. Harpers. 


17.50 

A History of the People of the United States 




(7 vols.). 

. McMaster.. 

.Appleton. 


2.50 

Bird’s Eye View of Our Civil War. 

. Dodge. 

.Houghton-Mifflin... 


1.00 

The Civil War by Campaigns.r. 

. Foster. 

. Crane & Co. 


1.00 

The American Conflict. 

.Greeley. . . . 

. Case & Co. 



Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (4 


• 


vols.). 

. Leading 




[Union and Confederate Generals. 

. Century Co. 


15.00 

Beginnings of New England (2 vols.). 

. Fiske. 

. Houghton-Mifflin. . . 


2.00 

American History (4 vols.). 

. Hart. 

. Macmillan. 


2.00 
























































































PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 


Acadia, (a ka/di a). 

Aguinaldo, (a ge nal'do). 

Aix la Chapelle, (as la sha pel'). 

Aleutian, (a lu 7 shi an). 

Americus Yespucius, (a mer 7 i cus ves pn'shiis). 
Amherst, (am 7 erst). 

Andre, (an 7 dra). 

Antietam, (ante'tam). 

Arkansas, (ar 7 kan sa 7 ). 

Aristotle, (ar 7 is tot 7 l.) 

Ayllon, (Ilyon 7 ). 

Azores, (a zorz 7 ). 

Beauregard, (bo'reh gard 7 ). 

Bonhomme Richard, (bo nom 7 re shar 7 ). 

Buena Yista, (bwa 7 na vis 7 ta). 

Burgoyne, (bergoin 7 ). 

Cartier, (kar'tya 7 ). 

Cervera, (thar va 7 ra). 

Champlain, (sham plan 7 ). 

Cherbourg, (sher 7 burg). 

Chickamauga, (chik 7 a ma 7 ga). 

Cibola, (se 7 bola). 

• Coligny, (co len 7 ye). 

Credit Mobilier, (cred 7 it mo be 7 lya). 

Cortez, (kor'tez). 

Decatur, (de ka 7 tur). 

Diaz, (de 7 as), Bartholomew. 

D’Estaing, (des tan 7 ). 

El Caney, (el ka 7 na). 

Ericsson, er 7 ik son). 

Euphrates, (u fra 7 tez). 

Eutaw, (u 7 ta). 


495 


496 


Appendix. 


Faneuil, (fan'el). 

Frobisher, (frob'ish er). 

Frontenac, (fron'te nak'). 

Gaspe, (gas'pa'). 

Genet, (zheh na/)- 
Genoa, (jen'o a). 

Gila, (he'la). 

Gorges, (gor'jez,) Ferdinando. 

Guadaloupe Hidalgo, (ga'da loop'e dal'go). 
Gnerriere, (gar rnar / ). 

Guiana, (ge a/na). 

Haverhill, (ha'veril). 

Hawaii, (ha wl'e). 

Huguenot, (hu'ge not). 

Iberville, (e ber veF). 

Iroquois, (ir 6 kwoi')* 

Iuka, (loo'ka). 

Joliet, (zho le a/).. 

Kearny, (kar'ni). 

Kearsarge, (ker'sarj). ' 

Kosciusko, (kos si us'ko). 

LaSalle, (la sal 7 ). 

Leyden, (ll'den). 

Lopez, (lo'pez). 

Marquette, (mar'ket'). 

Massasoit, (mas a soit). 

Menendez, (ma nen'deth). 

Narragansett, (nar a gan set). 

Narvaez, (nar va eth'). 

Nueces, (nwa/ses). 

Oglethorpe, (ogFthorp). 

Oriskany, (oris'kani). 

Oswego, (os we'go). 

Pakenham, (pak'en am). 

Pequot, (pe'kwot). 

Philippine, (fil'ip in). 

Piscataqua, (pis cat'a kwa). 


Pronouncing Vocabulary. 


497 


Pizarro, (pe zar 7 ro). 

Ponce de Leon, (pon'tha da la on 7 ). 
Pontiac, (poiPtiak). 

Porto Rico, (por'to re 7 ko). 
Portuguese, (por 7 tu gez). 

Powhatan, (powhatan 7 ). 

- Pulaski, (pu las 7 kee), Count 
Rio Grande, (re 7 o grand 7 ). 
Rochambeau, (ro 7 shon 7 bo 7 ). 

San Juan, (san hdo 7 an 7 ). 

Schuyler, (skl 7 ler). 

Sioux, (soo). 

Stuyvesant, (sti 7 ve sant). 
Tecumseh, (tekum 7 se). 

Utrecht, (u'trekt). 

Venezuela, (ven 7 e zwe 7 la). 

Vera Cruz, (va 7 ra kyoos). 
Verrazano, (ver ra tsa 7 no). 




















































9 























u 


















\ 



























4 































































INDEX 




Abolitionists, 286, 326. 

Acadia, grant, 33 ; extent of, 33 ; center of 
French trade, 33; ceded to England, 
108; English take possession of, 113. 

Acadians, exile of, 113. 

Acquisition of territory, 448; Louisiana 
Purchase, 238; Florida purchase, 270; 
Maine boundary, 290 ; Texas, annexation, 
307; Oregon, boundary, 306; Mexican 
War, 311 ; Gadsden purchase, 320 ; Alaska 
purchase, 404 ; Hawaiian Islands, 442; 
Samoan Islands, 443; Cuba, Porto Rico 
and the Philippines, 448. 

Adams, Charles Francis, 313. 

Adams, John, 148; treaty of Paris, 186; 
Vice-President, 200 ; President, 228 ; por¬ 
trait, 230; death of, 276. 

Adams, John Quincy, portrait, 275; Presi¬ 
dent, 275; policy, 275. 

Adams, Samuel, 148, portrait, 146. 

Africa, Portuguese explore coast of, 17. 

Agriculture, in colonial days, 69, 123; be¬ 
fore 1860, 294 ; since 1860, 456; depart¬ 
ment of, 403, 456. 

Aguinaldo, 470. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 109. 

Alabama, cruises Atlantic and Indian 
Oceans, 363 ; sunk off Cherbourg, 365. 

Alabama, Indian troubles in, 248; ad¬ 
mitted, 266 ; raids in, by Seminoles, 269 ; 
secedes, 336; carpet-bag rule in, 407. 

Alabama claims, 408, 409. 

Alarcon, explores Colorado river, 29. 

Alaska, purchased, 404 ; area, 404 ; prod¬ 
ucts, 404; seal fisheries off, 439; gold 
discovered in, 477; boundary established, 
477. 

Albany, Dutch at, 80. 

Albany, Plan of Union, 111. 

Albemarle, the, 367; destruction of, 367. 

Albemarle Sound, settlement, 95. 

Aleutian Islands, 439. 

Alexandria, trade through, 16; captured, 
17. 

Alexandria, Va., in colonial times, 112, 368. 

Algiers, trouble with, 224; treaty with, 
224 ; war with, 240 ; treaty with, 241. 

Algonquian family, 46 ; French allies, 34 ; 
location of, 46 ; w'ars, 82. 

Alien and Sedition laws, 231; Enemies’ 
Act, 232. 

Allegheny river, French on, 110. 

Allen, Ethan, captures Fort Ticonderoga, 
152. 

Allouez, 101. 

Amboy, British at, 164. 

Amendments to the Constitution, tenth, 
199; eleventh, 199; twelfth, 198, 233; 
thirteenth, 399; fourteenth, 401; fif¬ 
teenth, 403; proposed, 481. 


America, discovery of, 21; (see North 
America and South America, discovery 
of ;) named, 25 ; in 1600, 49. 

American Anti-Slavery Society, 287. 

“American Desert,” 412. 

American Fur Company, established, 240. 

American literature, 200; Colonial, 200, 
201; Revolutionary, 201-203 ; National, 
1789-1912; literature since Civil War, 
467. 

American party—see Know-Nothing party. 

Amherst, General, 114. 

Amnesty, proclamation, 398. 

Anderson, Major Robert, capitulates, 339. 

Andre, Major John, 177. 

Andros, Sir Edmond, rule of, 71. 

Annapolis, Md., trade convention at, 195. 

Annapolis, called Port Royal, 33. 

Anthracite coal strike, 476. 

Anti-Chinese movement, 427. 

Anti-Contract Labor Law, 426. 

Anti-Federalists, 199. 

Anti-Masonic party, 277, 282. 

Anti-rent difficulties, 292. 

Anti-slavery movement, 286, 313 ; laws, 332. 

Anti-Trust Act, 433. 

Antietam, battle of, 371, 372. 

Appalachian Mountains, 41. 

Appomattox Court House, surrender of Lee 
at, 386, 387. 

Arbitration policy, between England and 
Venezuela, 438; see permanent inter¬ 
national court of, Court of Arbitration, 
471, 472. 

Area of United States, center of, 457. 

Argali, Samuel, rule of, 54. 

Arista, General, 309. 

Aristotle, teachings of, 16. 

Arizona, crossed by Coronado, 29; ac¬ 
quired, 312; first railroad, 412; ad¬ 
mitted, 482. 

“Argonauts,” 315. 

Arkansas, Confederates in, 346; secedes, 
345. 

Arkansas river, Marquette and Joliet on, 

102 . 

Arlington, Lord, grant to, 59. 

Army of the Potomac, 368; organized, 
348; plans of, 368; peninsular cam¬ 
paign, 368, 370; continued, 384. 

Army of occupation, 308. 

Army of Virginia, 370. 

Arnold, Benedict, attacks Quebec, 156; 
at Saratoga, 168; to aid of Fort Stanwix, 
168; in command at Philadelphia and 
West Point, 177; treason of, 177; in 
British service, 183. 

Arsenals, seized by Confederacy, 337. 

Articles of Confederation, 190; provisions 
of, 193; weakness of, 193. 


499 


r 



500 


History of the United Stcdes. 


Arthur, Chester A., Vice-President, 422; 

President, 425 ; portrait, 425. 

Ashburton, Lord, 290. 

Ashley river, settlement on, -95. 

Asia, invaded, 1-5. 

Associated Press,'461. 

Astoria, founded, 240. 

Astor, John Jacob, founds Astoria, 240. 
Astrolabe, 15. 

Atchison, founded, 326. 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 412 ; 

opens up Southwest, 412. 

Atlanta, importance of, to Confederacy, 
380; battles around, 380 ; captured, 381; 
factories destroyed, 382; residents leave, 
382; International Exposition, 455, 456. 
Atlantic cable, 300. 

Augusta, captured, 175. 

Austin, Moses, 302. 

Austin, F. Stephen, 302. 

Austria, attitude of, during Spanish-Ameri- 
can War, 447. 

Australian ballot, 427. 

Averysboro, battle of, 383. 

Azore Islands, discovered, 17. 

Aztec Indians, 28. 

Bacon’s Rebellion, 60. 

Baffin’s Bay, explored, 35. 

Bahama Islands, discovered, 21 ; 362. 

Bahia, Brazil, Confederate privateer Flor¬ 
ida captured at, 365. 

Balboa, discovers Pacific, 27. 

Baltimore, attacked by British, 255; route 
to the West, 259 ; strives for commerce of 
tho VV 6st 259 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 262, 264; 
strike of 1877, 421. 

Bancroft, George, Secretary of Navy, 306. * 
Bank of North America, 174. 

Bankruptcy Law, 290. 

Banks, general, 368, 370. 

Banks, United States—see also National 
Banks; state—see State Banks. 

Baptist Church, first in America, 76. 

Barbary states, war wfith, 240. 

Barclay, Commodore, 252. 

Baton Rouge, captured, 356. 

Baum, Colonel, 167. 

Beauregard, General P. G. T., 343. 

“Bear Flag Republic,” 310. 

Bell, Alexander G., 452; portrait of, 452. 
Bell, John, presidential nominee, 335. 
Belmont, 350. 

Bemis Heights, battle of, 168. 

Bennington, battle of, 167. 

Benton, Thomas H., 283. 

Bent’s Fort, 310. 

Bentonville, battle of, 383. 

Berkeley, Lord, 58. 88. 

Berlin Decree, 244. 

Biddeford, settled, 78. 

Bienville, Celeron de, explorations of, 110. 
Big Black River, battle of, 357. 

Biloxi, French at, 108. 

Birney, James G., Abolitionist, 286, 288. 
Black, James, 414. 

“Black Codes,” 400. 

Black Hawk, chief, 286; war, 286. 

Black Hills, gold discovered in, 412, 416. 
Black Rock, burned by British, 253. 

Black Sea, trade through, 16. 


Bladensburg, battle of, 255. 

Blaine, James G., Secretary of State, 424; 
presidential nominee, 428. 

Blair, Francis P., 346, 404. 

Blanco, General, 445. 

Bland-Allison Act, 420, 421, 434. 

Block-Houses, picture, 69. 

Blockade, of 1812-14, 254; of southern 
ports, 344, 361; effect of, 362. 

Blockade-runners, capture of, 362. 

Blue Ridge Mountains, Army of Virginia 
reaches to, 370. 

Board of Trade and Plantations, 59. 

Body of Liberties, 68. 

“Bogus Legislature”—see Kansas, first leg¬ 
islature. 

Bonds, United States, paid to France for 
Louisiana, 239; for Civil War, 394; 
question of payment, 404, 416, 437. 

Bonhornme Richard, 178. 

Boone, Daniel, 174. 

Booth, John Wilkes, -assassinates Lincoln, 
387. 

Border States, feeling in, during Civil War, 
346 ; war in, 345. 

“Boss Tweed,” 416. 

Boston, founded, 67; in colonial times, 69, 
146, 149 ; massacre, 144 ; tea party, 145 ; 
picture of, 146 ; Port Act, 146 ; captured, 
156 ; evacuated, 157 ; fire, 408. 

Boundary, of United States in 1783, 187 ; 
fixed, between United States and Spanish 
Mexico, 239, 270; Louisiana, 239; of 
Maine, fixed, 290; dispute over Texas, 
239, 307, 308; Oregon, 304, 305; north¬ 
west water, 408; Alaskan, 477. 

Bowling Green, 350. 

Braddock, General Edward, defeat of, 112. 

Bradford, William, 64. 

Bragg, General Braxton, campaigns in Ken¬ 
tucky and Tennessee, 353-355; Chick- 
amauga, 358; Lookout Mountain and 
Missionary Ridge, 359. 

Brandywine, battle of, 170. 

Brant, Joseph, 174. 

Brandy Station, 376. 

Brazil, reached by Vespucius, 25. 

Breckinridge, John C., 329; presidential 
nominee, 334. 

Breed’s Hill, battle of, 154. 

Brewster, William, 64. 

British—see English. 

British Guiana, boundary settled, 438. 

British Orders in Council, 243. 

Brock, General, 250. 

Brooklyn Heights, fortified, 160. 

Brooks, Preston S., assaults Sumner, 327. 

Brown, B. Gratz, 413. 

Brown, General Jacob, 252, 253. 

Brown, John, free-state leader, in Kansas, 
328; raid of, 333. 

Browne, Robert, 62. 

Brush, Charles F., 452. 

Bryan, William J., presidential nominee, 
440, 473 ; portrait of, 440. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 464; portrait, 465. 

Buchanan, James, Secretary of State, 306; 
President, 329 ; portrait, 331; policy of, 
toward seceded states, 337. 

Buckner, Simon B., 352, 440. 

Buell, General, campaigns in Kentucky and 
Tennessee, 353. 

Buena Vista, 308; battle of, 310. 


Index. 


501 


Buffalo, burned by British, 253. 

Bull Run, battles of—first, 347; effect of, 
in North. 347 ; second, 370. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 154; monument, 
274. 

Bureau of Corporations, 478. 

Burgoyne, General, invades New York, 
165; picture of march through New 
York, 165; surrenders at Saratoga, 168; 
results of surrender, 168. 

Burlingame Treaty, 427. 

Burnside, General Ambrose E., 359, 372. 

Burr, Aaron, Vice-President, 233; duel 
with Hamilton, 241. 

Burr’s Conspiracy, 241. 

Butler, General Banjamin F., captures New 
Orleans, threatened Richmond, 3S4. 

Butler, John, 174, 355. 

Cabinet, first, 217 ; members of, succeed to 
office of President, 429; members of, 
430. 

Cabot, John, discovers North America, 24. 

Cabot, Sebastian, explores Atlantic coast, 

‘ 24. 

Cabral, voyages, 38. 

Cabrillo, explores Pacific coast, 29. 

Cahokia, 104. 

Cairo, Grant at, 351. 

Calhoun, John C., Vice-President, 275; 
portrait, 279, 317; advocates state 

rights, 280; debates on slavery, 316; 
death of, 320. 

California, Gulf of, explored, 29; Spanish 
settlements on, 30; Spanish settlements 
in, 30; conquest of, 310; Fremont in, 
310; a republic, 310; ceded to United 
States, 312; gold discovered in, 315; 
emigration to, 315; constitution formed 
316 ; admitted, 318; flooded by Chinese 
immigration, 413; attempt to exclude 
Chinese, 427. 

Calverts, 84, 87; Cecil, portrait of, 84. 

Cambridge, settled, 67, 155. 

Camden, battle of, 180. 

Campbell, Colonel, captures Savannah, 175. 

Canada, Indians in, 42; invaded, 107; 
given to England, 115; boundary of (see 
Quebec Act), 117, 118; religious tolera¬ 
tion in, 117 ; invaded by Americans, 156 ; 
slaves escape to, 319. 

Canals, picture of, 261; building of, 262; 
decay of, 263. 

Canary Islands, 21. 

Cano, Sebastian del, 28. 

Canonicus, 65. 

Cape Breton Island, fortified, 108. 

Cape Cod, named, 37 ; Pilgrims anchor off, 
63. 

Cape of Good Hope, 17. 

Cape Henlopen, 83. 

Cape Verde Islands, discovered, 17. 

Capital—see National capital. 

Capitol building, construction of first, 219; 
picture, 463, 464 ; burned, 255. 

“Captains of Industry,” 433. 

Caravels, 19 ; picture of, 20. 

Carleton, Sir Guy, 156. 

Carolinas, grant of, 94; charter of, 95; 
settlement, 95; separated, 95. See 
North and South Carolina. 

Carpenter’s Hall, 147. 


“Carpet-Bag” rule in the South, 406; dis¬ 
appears, 419. 

Carroll, Charles, signs Declaration of In¬ 
dependence, 159; breaks ground for 
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 265. 

Carteret, Philip, 87. 

Carteret, Sir George, 88. 

Cartier, Jacques, discovers St. Lawrence, 
31; portrait, 31. 

Carver, John, 64. 

Cass, Lewis, presidential nominee, 312. 

Castro, General, 310. 

, Cavaliers, in Virginia, 58; their bearing on 
colony, 58. 

Caxton, William, 16. 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 385. 

Cedar Mountain, Army of Virginia at, 370; 
battle of, 370. 

Cemetery Ridge, battle of, 375. 

Census reports, 267, 457. 

Centennial, 1876, 417. 

Central America, discovered, explored, 22. 

Central Pacific Railroad, 411. 

Cerro Gordo, battle of, 311. 

Cervera, Admiral, 447. 

Chad’s Ford, battle of, 170. 

Chambersburg, burned, 385. 

Champion Hills, battle of, 357. 

Champlain, at Port Royal, 33; discovers 
Lake Champlain, 33; portrait, 33; ex¬ 
plorations, 34. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 373. 

Chapultepec, battle of, 311. 

Charles I., 57 ; grants Maryland, 84. 

Charles II., 58; portrait, 70; grants Con¬ 
necticut, 75; grants Rhode Island, 77; 
grants Pennsylvania, 89; grants New 
Netherland (New York), 83; grants 
Carolina, 94. 

Charles IX., 32. 

Charleston, S. C., founded, 95; in colonial 
times, 96; attacked by Spanish, 108; 
captured by British, 180; bombarded, 
366; evacuated, 383. 

Charlestown, Mass., founded, 67. 

Charter Oak, 75, 76; picture, 75. 

Charters—see Grants. 

Chase, Salmon P., Secretary of Treasury, 
342; recommends national banks, 394. 

Chattanooga, movement on, 353 ; relief of, 
358. 

Cherbourg, France, battle off, 365. 

Cherokee Indians, 46; defeated in Ten¬ 
nessee, 175 ; removal of, 276. 

Cherry Valley, massacre, 174. 

Chesapeake Bay, Spaniards attempt to 
plant colony on, 29 ; blockade from, dur¬ 
ing Civil War, 361. 

Chesapeake, 248, 254 ; and Leopard affair, 
244. 

Chesapeake & Ohio Company, 262. 

Chester, 170. 

Chicago (Fort Dearborn), French explorers 
at, 102; fire, 408; Columbian Expo¬ 
sition, 438. 

Chickahominy river, 369. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 358. 

Chinese, 413; immigration, 426; legisla¬ 
tion against, 427; Exclusion Act, 427 ; 
Boxers, 471. 

Chippewa, battle of, 253. 

Christian Commission, 391. 

Christiana, settled, 83. 


502 


History of the United States . 


Chrysler’s Farm, battle at, 253. 

Churubusco, battle of, 311. 

Cincinnati, settled, 237. 

Circuit Courts, established, 219 ; abolished, 
218; Circuit Court of Appeals, estab¬ 
lished, 218. 

Circumnavigation of globe — first, 28; sec¬ 
ond, 35. 

Cities, growth of, 457, 458. 

City of Mexico, captured, 311. 

Civil Rights Bill, 401. 

Civil-Service, reform, 419, 420, 429; Law, 
420. 

Civil War, beginning of, 343; plans of, 
350; opposition to, 377; cost of, 391; 
results of, 000 ; finances of, 393 ; military 
supplies of, 344 ; destruction of property, 
392. 

Civil Wars of the Roses, 15. 

Claims to territory, in 1609, 39; rule to 
make claims good, 38; at close of Seven¬ 
teenth Century, 104. 

Clarendon, Lord, 94. 

Claiborne’s Rebellion, 86. 

Clark, General George Rogers, gains 
country north of Ohio river, 175 ; portrait, 
175 ; given land by Virginia, 192. 

Clark, William, 239. 

Clay, Henry, portrait, 273, 317; advocates 
Compromise Bill, 274 ; presidential can¬ 
didate, 275, 282, 305; debates on slavery, 
316 ; death of, 320. 

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 476. 

Clemens, Samuel (“Mark Twain”), 467. 

Clermont, 259 ; picture of, 259. 

Cleveland, Grover, President, 428; ad¬ 
ministration, 428-431; promotes civil 
service, 429; reelected, 436; portrait, 
429 ; 

Cliff Dwellers, i3. 

Clinton, George, Vice-President, 241; re¬ 
elected, 246. 

Clinton, General Sir Henry, at Philadelphia, 
170, 171, 177; in the South, 180. 

Coast operations, 361-367. 

Cockburn, Admiral, attacks Washington, 
255. 

Coinage Act, first, of gold and silver, 222; 
Act of 1873, 414; Bland-Allison Act, 
420 ; repealed, 434 ; Sherman Act, 433 ; 
repealed, 437; Gold Standard Act of 
1900, 473. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 384. 

Colfax, Schuyler, Vice-President, 404. 

Coligny, Huguenot leader, 32. 

Colleges, in the colonies, 129, 133. 

Colonial life, 119; first homes, 119, 124; 
picture, 120; furniture and cooking 
utensils, 120; fire, methods of starting, 
121; picture, 121; fireplace, picture, 
122; “tallow dips,” 122; other lights, 
122 ; food, 123 ; better dwellings, 124 ; 
picture, 125; clothing, 125; industries, 
73 ; home industries, 126 ; in South, 124 ; 
picture, 125; social distinctions, 126; 
travel and transportation, 127; educa¬ 
tion, 129; newspapers, 130; mails, 130; 
amusements, 130; money, 131; religion, 
132; punishments, 134; picture of stocks 
and pillory, 134; manufactures, 137, 141. 

Colorado, acquired, 312; emigration to, 
409,410; organized, 410 ; admitted, 410 ; 
first railroad, 412. 


Colonists, 36; early, 136; character of, 
52, 65, 67, SI, 97, 132, 133. 

Columbia, S. C., captured, 383. 

Columbia river, discovered, 240; explored 
by Lewis and Clark, 239. 

Columbus, Christopher, portrait, 18; early 
life, 17; efforts to obtain aid, 19; first 
voyage, 20; second voyage, 22; other 
voyages, 22. 

Colombia, Panama secedes from, 476. 

Columbus, Ky., 350; abandoned, 352. 

Commerce, in colonial times, 83, 137, 139 ; 
laws regulating, 59, 137, 139, 194 ; with 
France, 243; on the Mississippi, 237; 

' 1800 to 1860, 296, 316; about 1812, 243, 
246 ; destroyers, 344, 362 ; protection of, 
during Civil War, 361; after Civil War, 
414; expansion of, afte? 1898, 448; De¬ 
partment of (see Department of Com- 

. merce and Labor), 477, 478; since 1860, 
454 ; increase of, 448. 

Commerce of Europe, with the East, 16. 

Commercial prosperity, 296 ; after the Civil 
War, 414. 

Compass, comes into use, 15. 

Compromise, Missouri, 273; of 1850, 318; 
attempts at, 336 ; Crittenden’s, 336. 

Compromises in Constitution, 196. 

Concord, battle of, 152. 

Conestoga wagons, 128; picture, 128. 

Confederate States, plans for, 336 ; govern¬ 
ment established, 337; constitution of, 
337 ; capital of, 337 ; recognized as bel¬ 
ligerent power bv foreign countries, 348 ; 
commerce with England, 362 ; blockaded, 
361 ; military supplies of, 362 ; losses of, 
391; debt of, 392 ; destruction of prop¬ 
erty, 392. 

Confederate, line of defense, 350; aban¬ 
doned in the west, 352; pushed south¬ 
ward, 352 ; military supplies, 380 ; flags, 
picture of, 374. 

Confederate ports, blockade of, 361, 362; 
loss of, 366. 

Congress , 363. 

Congress, first colonial, 141 : under Articles 
of Confederation (see Continental Con¬ 
gress) ; first, 218; sessions of, 218; re¬ 
construction plan of, 400 ; declares Cuba 
free, 445. 

Conkling, Roscoe, United States Senator, 
424. 

Connecticut, settled, 73; becomes inde¬ 
pendent colony, 74 ; government, 74 ; 
granted charter, 75; liberal government, 
75; extent of grant, 75 ; attempt to take 
charter, 76; charter hidden, 76; again 
becomes law, 76; invaded by British, 
177 ; claims to western land, 191; West¬ 
ern Reserve of, 192. 

Connecticut Valley, settlement of, 73. 

Conscription Act, 377. 

Conservation of natural resources, 479. 

Constantinople, capture of, 15. 

Constitution, 253. 

Constitution, (see First Written Constitu¬ 
tion of United States) ; Virginia plan of, 
196; New Jersey plan of, 196; com¬ 
promises of, 196, 198; before the people, 
198; John Marshall on, 233. 

Constitutional Convention, plans of, 196; 
compromises of, 196. 

Continental Congress, first, 147; second. 




Index. 


503 


153 ; adopts flag of stars and stripes, 167 ; 
picture of flag, 167; flees from Phil¬ 
adelphia, 170. 

Continental army, 128, 152, 155; Washing¬ 
ton in command, 154; lack of supplies 
for, 156, 173. 

Continental debt, 188. 

Continental money, 131, 132; paper 

money, 172; picture of, 172; lack of, 
173 ; depreciation of, 173. 

Continentals, 153. 

Constitutional Union party, 334. 

Constitutions, first, 190; free-state, 345. 

Contreras, battle of, 311. 

Conway Cabal, 171. 

Cooper, Peter, 265; presidential nominee, 
418. 

Cooper, James Fennimore, 464; portrait, 
465. 

“Copperheads,” 377. 

Cordova, explores coast of Mexico, 28. 

Corinth, 352; battle of, 356. 

Coronado, explorations, 29. 

Cornwallis, Lord, captures Fort Washing¬ 
ton, 161; retreat of, 183; in Virginia, 
184; surrenders at Yorktown, 185; 
picture of surrender, 185; effect of sur¬ 
render, 186. 

Corporations, Bureau of, 478; growth of, 
433. 

Corpus Christi, Taylor’s army at, 308. 

Corruption in office*416. 

Cortereal, explores Atlantic coast, 38. 

Cortez, conquers Mexico, 28. 

Cotton, picture of, 223; industry in the 
South, 223, 455; first factories, 295. 

Cotton gin, invented, 222 ; picture of, 223. 

Courts of admiralty, 137. 

Council Bluffs, Mormons at, 293. 

Council for New England, 62; Pilgrims 
settle on land of, 64. 

Courts, United States, established — see 
Supreme Court, Circuit Court, and Dis¬ 
trict Court. 

Court of Arbitration, 471, 472. 

Cowpens, battle of, 181. 

“Coxey’s Army,” 437. 

Crawford, William H., presidential candi¬ 
date. 275. 

Credit Mobilier, 417. 

Creek Indians, 46, 248; removal of, 276. 

Crittenden’s Compromise, 336. 

Cromwell, Oliver, rule of, 58; portrait of, 
58. 

Crown Point, built, 108; expedition 
against, 113; abandoned, 114; captured 
by patriots, 153. 

Crusades, 15. 

“Crystal Palace,” 322. t 

Cuba, discovered, 21; settled, 27 ; Spanish 
rule in, 323, 443, 444 ; American interests 
in, 444 ; revolutions in, 444 ; blockaded, 
446; surrendered, 448; under military 
rule, 469, 470 ; a republic, 469. 

Cuban, revolutionary party, 323 ; military 
expeditions, 323. 

Culpeper, Lord, 59. 

Culpeper Court House, 376. 

Culp’s hill, battle on, 375. 

Cumberland, 363. 

Cumberland, canal to, 262, 263; national 
pike, 237. 

Currency, of United States, up to 1792, 221; 
Civil War, 394; 221, 237. 


Cushing, Lieutenant, torpedoes the Albe¬ 
marle, 367. 

Custer, General George, defeat, 416. 

Custom-houses, 220; seized by Confeder¬ 
ates, 337. 

Customs—see Tariff. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 54. 

Dallas, battle of, 380. 

Dare, Virginia, 37. 

Darien, Spanish at, 27. 

Daughters of Liberty, 141. 

Davenport, John, 74. 

• Davis, Jefferson, withdrawn from Senate, 
329; President of Confederate States, 
337; portrait, 337; escape, 386. 

Davis, Henry G., 479. 

Davis, John, voyages, 34. 

Davis Strait, 35. 

Dawes, William, 152. 

Dayton, William L., 329. 

De Ayllon, explores South Atlantic coast, 
29. 

De Espejo, explores New Mexico, 29. 

D’Estaing, Admiral, 174; tries to capture 
Savannah, 176. 

DeGrasse, eommander of French fleet, 185. 

DeKalb, Baron, 169. 

DeLeon, Ponce, discovers Florida, 27. 

DeMont, settles Port Royal, 33. 

DeSoto, Governor of Cuba and Florida, 
30; explores Mississippi and Red rivers, 
30; picture, 30. 

De Vaca, 29. 

Deane, Silas, commissioner to France, 169. 

Dearborn, General, captures York (now 
Toronto), 252; captures Fort George, 
252. 

Debt, national, at the close of the Revolu¬ 
tion, 220; increased by War of 1812, 
256; paid in 1835, 283; during Civil 
War, 393 ; in 1866, 430 ; reduced between 
1879 and 1890, 430. 

Decatur, Commodore, 241. 

Declaration of Independence, 157-159 ; pic¬ 
ture of signing, 158; adopted, 157-159; 
copy of, 487. 

Declaration of Rights, 142, 148. 

Deerfield, massacre, 107. 

DeGourgues, captures Fort Carolina, 33. 

Delaplace, surrenders Fort Ticonderoga, 
152. 

Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia, 54. 

Delaware, settlement, 83; sold to Penn, 
84; under Pennsylvania, 84; becomes 
independent, 84. 

Delaware Bay, discovered, 38. 

Delaware river, discovered, 38; named 
South River, 38 ; forts on, during Revolu¬ 
tion, 170; Washington crosses, 163. 

Democratic party, 277, 378. 

Democratic-Republican party, 222; be¬ 
comes Democratic, 277. 

Denver, settled, 409, 410; capital of Colo¬ 
rado, 410. 

Department of Commerce and Labor, 
created, 477, 478. 

Deposit Act, 283. 

Detroit, held by English, 225; surrender 
of, 250. 

Dewey, Commodore George, 446; wins 
battle of Manila Bay, 446; portrait of, 
446. 


504 


History of the United States. 


Diaz, Bartholomew, explorations, 17. 

Dickinson, John, 148. 

Dingley Tariff, 442. 

Dinwiddie, Governor Robert, 110. 

Discoveries, Spanish, 21-39; French, 31- 
39; Portuguese, 17-25; English 34, 37, 
39; Dutch, 3S, 39. 

District courts, established, 219. 

District of Columbia, ceded by Maryland 
and Virginia, 219; slavery abolished, 
287; slave trade prohibited in District 
of Columbia, 318. 

Dole, Sanford B., President of Hawaiian 
Republic, 442. 

Doniphan, Colonel, 310. 

Dorchester, settled, 67. 

Dorchester Heights, Americans occupy, 
156. 

Dorr’s Rebellion, 292. 

Douglas, Stephen A., United States Senator, 
326; Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 326; de¬ 
bates with Lincoln, 332 ; portrait, 332 ; 
presidential nominee, 335. 

Dover, N. H., settled, 78; massacre, 107. 

Downie, Commodore George, 254. 

Drafting, for the army, 377; in the North, 
377 ; in the South, 377 ; opposition to, in 
New York City, 377. 

Drake, Sir Francis, voyages, 35; explores 
Pacific coast, 35; circumnavigates globe, 
35. 

Dred Scott decision, 331. 

Duane, William, Secretary of Treasury, 
282. 

Dutch, explorers, 38, 39 ; trading-posts, 73, 
87 ; fur-traders, 80 ; Indian policy, 81; 
grants, 81; settlements, 80, 83, 87; 
claims, 38. 

Dutch Calvinists, in New York, 133; in 
New Jersey, 133. 

Dutch East India Company, 38. 

Dutch Government grants right to trade, 
80. 

Dutch West India Company, 80. 


East Jersey (see New Jersey), 88. 

Early, General Jubal, raid of North, 385. 
Early inhabitants of America, 13. 

Earth, the, belief that it was flat, 16. 
Edison, Thomas A., 451, 452; portrait of, 
451. 

Education, in colonial days, 129; in the 
United States, 460; school system, 460. 
Edwards, Jonathan, writings, 201. 

El Caney, battle of, 447 ; 

Electoral Commission, 418. 

Electricity, 451, 452. 

Elizabeth City, captured, 366. 

Elizabeth, Queen, 34 ; portrait, 34. 
Elizabethtown, settled, 87. 

Elkton, British at, 170; Americans at, 185. 
Elmira, N. Y., Indians and Tories de¬ 
feated at, 174. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 372, 373. 
Embargo Act, 245. 

Emergency Act, 480. 

Emerson, Ralph W T aldo, 466; portrait, 
465. 

Emigrant Aid Society, 327. 

Emigration, western, 73, 191, 226, 236, 259, 
326, 315, 409. 

Emperor of Germany, settles northwest 
water boundary, 408. 


Endicott, John, 67. 

England, conditions in 1600, 49; gains 
Canada, 115 ; attitude during Civil War, 
348, 365 ; during Spanish-American War, 
447. 

English, explorers, 34, 37, 39; basis of 
claims in America, 24, 82 ; first colony, 
35; settlements, 35-98; war with Spain, 
98, 169; war with French, 106, 107, 109, 
113, 243; claims, 39, 104, 109; plan of 
French and Indian war, 112; provinces 
acquired, 116; colonial policy, 117, 136; 
war with colonies, 136; refuses to aban¬ 
don trading-posts and forts in North¬ 
west, 195, 225; at war with France, 225; 
claim right of search, 225; encourage 
Indians to war, 226, 249; blockade 
American coast, 254; commercial inter¬ 
ests dependent upon South, 362; fits 
out Confederate cruisers, 365; pay 
Alabama claims, 409. 

Episcopal Church, or Church of England, 
established by law in Virginia, 51, 133; 
formed, 62. 

Equal Rights party, 428. 

Era of Good Feeling, 269. 

Ericson, Leif, 14. 

Ericsson, John, 364; picture of, 364. 

Erie Canal, 260; effect of construction, 
262. 

Essayists and Poets, colonial, 202 ; national, 
467. 

Euphrates river, trade on, 17. 

Europe, conditions in, 15; attitude during 
Civil War, 348; emigration from, 425. 

Explorations, Spanish, 25, 27-31; French, 
31-34; Portuguese, 17, 25,38,39; Eng¬ 
lish, 34-39 ; Dutch, 38, 39. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 184. 

Ewell, General, 386. 

Exeter, settled, 78, 107. 

Express, pon3 r , 410. 


Fair Oaks, battle of, 369. 

Fairbanks, Charles W r ., 479. 

Falmouth, Union forces at, 37?. 

Family life, beginning of, 55. 

Faneuil Hall, 145 ; picture of, 145. 

Farmers’ Alliance, 435; and Industrial 
Union, 435. 

Farmers’ League, 435. 

Farragut, Admiral David, portrait, 356; 
captures New Orleans, 355, 356; Baton 
Rouge and Natchez, 356; battle of 
Mobile Bay, 366; picture of battle, 367. 

Federal Hall, 217. 

Federalist, 198. 

Federalist party, 19S; work of, 234. 

Ferdinand, King, aids Columbus, 19; 
portrait, 19. 

Ferguson, Major, 181. 

Field, Cyrus W., 300. 

Fields, James G., 436. 

Fifteenth Amendment—see Amendments. 

“ Fifty-four-forty or fight,” 305. 

Filibustering expeditions, 323, 444. 

Fillmore, Millard, Vice-President, 313; 
President, 318; portrait, 318. 

Financial distress, 172, 173, 256; from 1830 
to 1840, 282; panics—of 1837, 284; of 
1857, 334; of 1873, 415; measures to 
relieve, 415; of 1893, 437. 

Finances, during Revolution, 169, 189; 


Index. 


505 


superintendent of, 173 ; after the Revolu¬ 
tion, 194; condition of, in 1789, 219; 
trouble of 1832-1840, 282; of the Civil 
War, 393. 

First written Constitution, 74. 

Fisher’s Hill, battle of, 385. 

Fisheries, question, 187 ; Atlantic question, 
settled, 408, 409. 

Fitch, John, 259. 

Five Forks, battle-of, 38G. 

Five Nations—see Iroquois Indians. 

Flags, picture of first United States, 167; 
picture of Confederate, 374. 

Flamborough Head, 178. 

Flatboats, on Ohio, 237; on Mississippi, 
237 ; picture, 236. 

Florida, 363, 365. 

Florida, discovered, 27; ceded to England, 
115; East and West, 116; ceded to 
Spain 1783, 187; treaty, 239, 270; pur¬ 
chase of East and West, 270; Indian 
War, 269, 286; admitted, 307; secedes, 
336; readmitted, 402. 

Foote, Commodore, bombards Forts Henry 
and Donelson, 351. 

“Force” Bills, 407. 

Forbes, General, 113. 

Foreign nations (trouble with), 194 ; affairs, 
224, 348 ; at opening of Civil War, 348. 

Forrest, General Nathan H., 382. 

Fort Brown, 308. 

Fort Carolina, built, 32; massadre, 32. 

Fort Crevecoeur, built, 102. 

Fort Cumberland, 112. 

Fort Dearborn (now Chicago), falls into 
hands of British, 251. 

Fort Detroit, built, 108. 

Fort Donelson, captured, 350, 351; effect 
of, 352. 

Fort Duquesne, built, 110; captured, 114; 
changed to Fort Pitt, 114. 

Fort Edward, French defeated at, 113. 

Fort Erie, captured, 253. 

Fort Fisher, captured, 366. 

Fort Frontenac (now Kingston), 104; 
captured by English, 114. 

Fort Gaines, captured, 366. 

Fort George, captured, 252. 

Fort Henrv, captured, 350, 351; effect of, 
352. 

Fort Jackson, 355. 

Fort Kaskaskia, 104. 

Fort Le Bceuf, built, 110. 

Fort Leavenworth, 308. 

Fort Lee, built, 160; abandoned, 161. 

Fort McHenry, bombarded, 255. 

Fort Mackinac, 104. 

Fort Malden, 250, 251. 

Fort Mercer, 170. 

Fort Mifflin, 170. 

Fort Mimms, captured, 248. 

Fort Morgan, captured, 366. 

Fort Nassau, built, 80. 

Fort Necessity, built, 111. 

Fort Niagara, built, 108; captured, 114; 
held by English, 225. 

Fort Orange, built, 80; changed to Albany, 
83. 

Fort Pemaquid, settled, 78. 

Fort Pickens, 339. 

Fort Pitt, 114. 

Fort Prudhomme, 104. 

Fort Richeleau, 104. 


Fort St. Joseph, 104. 

Fort St. Louis, built, 103. 

Fort St. Louis, on Matagorda Bay, 104. 

Fort St. Marks, 270. 

Fort St. Philip, 355. 

Fort Stanwix (Fort Schuyler), besieged, 167. 

Fort Steadman, 386. 

Fort Sumter, 339; fall of, 343. 

Fort Ticonderoga, built, 113; abandoned, 
114; captured by Americans, 152; 
abandoned, 165. 

Fort Venango, built, 110. 

Fort Vincennes, built, 108. 

Fort Washington, built, 160; captured by 
British, 161. 

Fort William Henry, 113. 

Fortress Monroe, 339. 

Forts, seized by Confederacy, 337. 

“Forty-niners,” 315; picture of, 315. 

Fourteenth Amendment—see Amendments. 

Fox, George, founder of Quakers, 89. 

Fox river explored, 101. 

Fractional currency, 395; picture of, 395; 
silver, 414. 

France, attitude during Civil War, 348; 
attitude of, during Spanish-American 
War, 447; republic forftied in, 225. 

Francis I., 31. 

Frankfort, Federal cavalry at, 354. 

Franklin, battle of, 382. 

Franklin, Benjamin, draws up Albany Plan 
of Union, 111; head of postoffice depart¬ 
ment, 154; picture of “Unite or Die,” 
159; Declaration of Independence, 159; 
commissioner to France, 169; portrait 
of, 169; treaty of Paris, 186; member 
Constitutional Convention, 196; writ¬ 
ings of, 201. 

Frazier’s Farm, battle of, 370. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 373; fortified, 
373. 

Free coinage of gold and silver, 222. 

Free-Soil party, formed, 312. 

Freedman’s Bureau, established, 397. 

Freedmen, legislation against, 400. 

Fremont, Captain John C., explorations, 
310; in California, 310; presidential 
nominee, 329, 378. 

French, discoveries, 31, 39; explorations, 
31; objects, 100; settlements, 32, 100- 
104; weakness of, 100; obstacles to 
growth, 100; missionaries, 101; relation 
with Indians, 101; fur-traders, 100; 
relations with English, 100; claims at 
close of Seventeenth century, 104; 
strongholds, 107; wars with English, 
106, 107, 109, 113, 243; possessions, de¬ 
velopment of, 108; fortify St. Lawrence, 
108; settle Mississippi valley, 108; 
settlements and forts at close of seven¬ 
teenth century, 104, 108; headquarters 
in South, 10S ; power in America broken, 
114; abandon America, 115; acknowl¬ 
edge our independence, 169; alliance, 
169; fleet, 171, 174, 185; republic es¬ 
tablished, 225; directory, 230; war with 
English, 225; trouble with United 
States, 226, 231; treaty of 1800, 231; in 
Mexico, 403. 

French and Indian War, 109; causes, 109; 
plan of, 112; expeditions, 112-114; re¬ 
sults of, 115. 

French Protestants—see Huguenots. 


506 


History of the United States. 


Frenchtown, battle of, 251. 

Friends—see Quakers. 

Fries’s Rebellion, 232. 

Frobisher Bay, 35. 

Frobisher, Sir Martin, voyages, 34. 

Frolic, 253. 

Frontenac, Governor of Canada, sends out 
explorers, 101; during King William’s 
War, 107. 

Fugitive slave laws, 318. 

Fulton, Robert, 260 ; portrait, 260; 
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 74. 
Funston, General Fred, in the Philippines, 
470. 


Gadsden, James, 320. 

Gadsden Purchase, 320; extent of, 320. 

“Gag Rule,” 287. 

Gage, General Thomas, 147, 151. 

Gaines’s Mill, battle of, 370. 

Gama, Vasco da, voyages, 17. 

Garfield, James, President, 424; policy of, 
424 ; assassination of, 424 ; portrait, 424. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 286; portrait, 
287. 

Gaspee, 144. 

Gates, General Horatio, defeated at Cam¬ 
den, 180. 

Geary, John W., Governor Kansas Terri¬ 
tory, 328. 

General Court, 67. 

Genet, Minister, 226. 

Geneva Award—see Alabama Claims. 

Genoa, center of commerce, 16. 

George III., 138; portrait, 138; character 
of, 138; colonial plans of, 139. 

Georgia, settled, 97; grant, 97; govern¬ 
ment, 97; industries, 97 ; restrictions and 
growth, 97; a royal province, 98; war 
with Spaniards, 98; outpost against 
Spanish, 97; invaded by British, 175; 
claim to western land, 191; Indian 
troubles in, 248; cedes Mississippi terri¬ 
tory to United States, 276; secedes, 336 ; 
carpet-bag rule in, 406. 

Germantown, battle of, 170. 

Germany, emigration from, to United 
States, 425, 426; attitude of, during 
Spanish-America'n War, 447. 

Gerry, Elbridge, minister to France, 230. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 375, 376. 

Gila river, 320. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, attempts to plant 
first English colony, 35; portrait, 35. 

Gist, Christopher, 110. 

Gold, free coinage of, 222; discovered in 
California, 314; fields, 315; picture of 
sifting, 316; in Colorado, 409; reserve, 
436; discovered in Black Hills, 412; 
standard, Act of 1900, 473; discovered 
in Klondike and Yukon, 477; reserve, 
436. 

Goldsboro, 366. 

Goodyear, Charles, 300. 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, granted Maine, 78. 

Gosnold, Bartholomew, voyages, 37. 

Government, colonial—see English colonial 
policy. Under Articles of Confedera¬ 
tion, 193; branches of, 219; for the 
Northwest Territory, 191 ; roads, 237; 
departments of, 217 ; property seized by 
Confederacy, 337; expenditures of, 392, 


393; aid to railroads, 411, 412; total 
expenditures, 472. 

Grand Army of the Republic, 389; Ladies 
of the, 389. 

Grand Model—see Lock, John, Grand 
Model. 

Grand Review, of troops at Washington, 388. 

Grangers, or Patrons of Husbandry, 431. 

Grant, General Ulysses S., portrait, 351, 
379; campaign in the West, 350; at 
Vicksburg, 357; surrender of Vicksburg, 
357; general-in-chief, 378, 379; plans 
of, 380; battle of Wilderness, 383; 
Spottsylvania Court House, 384 ; North 
Anna, 384 ; Lee surrenders to, 387 ; Pres¬ 
ident, 404. 

Grants, to London Company, 50, 53; to 
Plymouth Company, 50; to Council for 
New England, 62; to Culpeper and 
Arlington, 59; to Massachusetts Bay, 
66; for Providence Plantations, 76, 77; 
for New Hampshire and Maine, 78; to 
Dutch West India Company, 80; for 
Maryland, 84, 85; for Pennsylvania, 90, 
91; for New York, 83 ; for the Carolinas, 
94 ; for Georgia, 97. 

Gray, Captain, discovers Columbia river, 
240. 

• Great Britain—see English. 

Great Central Plain, 41. 

Great Lakes, explored, 102. 

Great Meadows (Fort Necessity), 111. 

Greeley, Horace, presidential nominee, 413. 

Green Bay, explored, 101. 

“Green Mountain Boys,” 152, 167. 

Greenback party, 418. 

Greenbacks, 394 ; redeemable in coin, 416. 

Greene, General Nathanael, in command, 
181; portrait, 181; recovers South 
Carolina, 184. 

Greenland, Northmen plant colony at, 14. 

Grenville, Sir George, Prime Minister, 139. 

Grijalva, explores Mexican coast, 28. 

Guadalupe-Hidalgo, treaty of, 311. 

Guam, annexed, 443. 

Guerilla warfare, during Revolution, 183. 

Guerriere, 248, 253. 

Guilford, Conn., founded, 74. 

Guilford Court House (now Greensboro), 
battle of, 183. 

Guiteau, Charles J., assassinates President 
Garfield, 425. 

Gulf of Mexico, 41; LaSalle reaches, 102; 
French settlement on, 103. 

Gutenberg, Johannes, 16. 

Hague Court, fund to establish, 471, 472. 

Hale, Nathan, 161. 

“Half-breeds,” 424. 

Halleck, General Henry, 350. 

Hamilton, Alexander, member of Constitu¬ 
tional Convention, 196; Secretary of 
Treasury, 218; financial policy of, 219; 
portrait, 220; duel with Burr/241. 

Hamilton, General, 175. 

Hamlin, Hannibal, Vice-President, 335. 

Hampton, settled, 78. 

Hampton, General, 252. 

Hampton Roads, battle of Monitor and 
Merrimac in, 363. 

Hancock, John, 143; president of Con¬ 
tinental Congress, 159. 


Index. 


507 


Hancock, Winfield S., presidential nominee, 
422. 

Hand-made lumber, 124; loom, 125. 

Hard Times, Grant at, 357. 

Hardee, General, evacuates Charleston, 
383. 

Harmar, General, 227. 

Haro Strait, 409. 

Harper’s Ferry, John Brown Raid at, 333; 
captured by Stonewall Jackson, 372. 

Harrison, Benjamin, President, 432; por¬ 
trait of, 432; presidential nominee, 436. 

Harrison, William Henry, at Tippecanoe, 
248; in War of 1812, 250; presidential 
candidate, 284, 288; President, 289; 
death of, 289 ; portrait, 289. 

Harrison Landing, 370. 

Hartford, Conn., settled, 73; convention, 
256. 

Harvard College, 129. 

Harvester, invented, 297. 

Harvey, Captain, in Kansas, 327. 

Hatteras Inlet, captured 366. 

Havana, ceded to Spain, 115; Maine 
blown up in the harbor of, 445. 

Haverhill massacre, 107. 

Hawaiian Islands, a republic, 442 ; annexed, 
442. 

Hawthorne, 466 ; portrait, 465. 

Hawkins, John, sells slaves in West Indies, 
56. 

Hay, John, Secretary of State, 471. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., portrait, 419; Pres¬ 
ident, 418; policy of, 419. 

Hayne, Robert, advocates state rights, 280. 

Hay-Pauncefote, treaty, 476. 

Hayti, discovered, 21; settled, 27. 

Helper, Hinton R., 324. 

Hendricks, Thomas A., 418; presidential 
nominee, 428. 

Hennepin, Father, explores upper Missis¬ 
sippi, 102. 

Henry, Patrick, 141, 147, 148; Governor 
of Virginia, 175. 

Henry VIII., 62. 

Hepburn Rate Bill, 479. 

Herkimer,. General, 167. 

Hessian soldiers, 160. 

Highways—see Roads. 

Hillsboro, N. C., American army organized 
at, 180. 

Hispaniola, 21 ; colonized, 27. 

Historians, 467. 

Hobart, Garret A., 440; Vice-President, 
441. 

Hobkirk’s Hill, battle at, 1S4. 

Hobson, Ensign, 447. 

Hoe, Richard M., invents cylinder print¬ 
ing-press, 300; 462. 

Holly Springs, 357. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 467; portrait, 467. 

Holy Alliance, 271. 

Home industries, 126, 141; protection of, 

221 . 

Home manufactures, 126, 141; defended, 
295. 

Homestead Act, 411. 

Honduras, filibustering expeditions, 323. 

Hood, General J. B., battle near Atlanta, 
380; retreat from Atlanta, 381; battle 
of Franklin, 382; battle of Nashville, 
382 

Hooker, General Joseph E., 368, 373. 


Hooker, Thomas, 67; founds Hartford, 
Conn., 73. 

Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 248. 

House of Burgesses, 55. 

House of Lords, 58. 

House of Representatives, 196, 203; organ¬ 
ized, 218. 

Houston, Samuel, 303. 

Howe, Elias, 296. 

Howe, General William, 154 ; moves against 
Philadelphia, 168; campaign around 
Philadelphia, 170. 

Hubbardston, battle at, 166. 

Hudson, Henry, explorations, 38; dis¬ 
coveries, 38; portrait, 38. 

Hudson Bay territory, ceded to England, 
108. 

Hudson river, discovered, 38,; explored, 38 ; 
forts on, 160, 161; campaign along, 161. 

Huguenots, attempt to plant colonies, 32; 
French in the Carolinas, 133. 

Hull, General William, 250; surrender of, 
250. 

Hundred Years War, 15. 

Huron Indians, 34. 

Hutchinson, Anne, 72 ; founds Portsmouth, 
72. 


Iberville, 108. 

Iceland, Northmen discover, 14. 

Idaho, admitted, 412. 

Illinois, admitted, 266. 

Illinois river, explored by Marquette and 
Joliet, 102; LaSalle on, 102; forts on, 
102, 103. 

Immigrants, 412 ; number of, from Europe, 
425, 426 ; character of, 425. 

Immigration, 411, 412; from Europe, 425, 
426 ; of Chinese, 427; legislation regard¬ 
ing, 426; problem, 427. 

“Impending Crisis,” 324. 

Imperialism, 469. 

Impressment of American seamen, 244. 

Income tax, 481*; law, 439. 

Indentured servants, 55. 

Independence, Declaration of—see Declara¬ 
tion of Independence. 

Independence Hall, 158, 196; picture of, 
158. 

Independent party, 480. 

Independent Treasury system—see Sub- 
treasury Act. 

Indian families, 46. 

Indian Country (extent of), 116; wars in, 
the Northwest, 248; massacres in West 
416. 

Indian Ocean, trade through, 16. 

Indian Territory, now Oklahoma. 

• Indiana, admitted, 266. 

Indians, portrait of, 43; where found, 42; 
numbers, 42 ; appearance, 43; mode of 
life, 43; weapons, dress and property, 
44; characteristics, 45; religion, 45; 
government and families, 46 ; massacres, 
picture, 106; alliance with French, 107, 
109; traits of, 45; wars, 56, 107; in 
French and Indian War, 112, 116; dur¬ 
ing Revolution, 165, 168, 174, 175; at 
Tippecanoe, 24S ; wars in Northwest, 226 ; 
in War of 1812, 248, 251; moved to 
Indian Territory, 276; present home of, 
48; number of, in 1909, 42. 


508 


History of the United States. 


Industrial development in 1800, 294 ; 1800 
to 1860, 294-298 ; 1860 to 1912, 451-456; 
of the South since 1860, 455 ; in 60’s, 414. 

Industrial Expositions (see World’s Fairs). 
At Atlanta, 455 ; Charleston, 478 ; James¬ 
town, 456; New Orleans, 455; Omaha, 
478 ; Portland, 478 ; Seattle, 478. 

Industries, in colonies, 69, 124, 125-12S; 
revolutionized in South, 222; of the 
North, 273, 276; of the South, 273, 276; 
about 1800, 294 ; in the West, 316; after 
Civil War, 414, 452-457. 

Inflation Bill, 415. 

Ingalls, John J., 429. 

Intellectual awakening, 15. 

Inter-Colonial Wars, 105. 

Internal improvements, 275. 

Internal Revenue or Excise Act, first, 1789, 
221; of 1861, 393, 430; for Spanish- 
American war fund, 445. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 429, 431. 

Interstate Commerce Commission, powers 
of, 431, 432. 

Intolerable Acts, 145, 147. 

Inventions, about 1860, 296, 300; since 
1860, 451; picture of cradle, binder, 297. 

“Invincible Armada,” 37. 

Iowa, admitted, 307. 

Ireland, emigration from, to United States, 
425, 426; failure of potato crop in, 425. 

Iroquian family, location of, 46. 

Iroquois Indians, allies of English, 34; 
pledge neutrality to the French, 108. 

Ironclads, 366, 367. (See Merrimac and 
Monitor.) 

Irving, Washington, 464; portrait, 465. 

Isabella, Queen, aids Columbus, 19; por¬ 
trait, 19. 

Island No. 10, captured, 352. 

Iuka, battle of, 356. 


Jackson, General T. J., (“Stonewall,”) 
portrait, 369 ; raid of, 369 ; death of, 374. 

Jackson, General Andrew, at New Orleans, 
255 ; defeats Indians, 269 ; presidential 
nominee, 275; President, 277, 282; 

character of, 279; introduces “Spoils 
System,” 279 ; proclamation against nul¬ 
lification, 281; in Seminole War, 270. 

Jacksonville, Mo., Mormons at, 292. 

Jalapa, captured, 311. 

Jamaica, discovered, 22; settled, 27; 
English navy at, 255. 

James I. grants Virginia charter, 50 ; grants 
Massachusetts, 66; grants Plymouth 
Company, 66 ; portrait, 50. 

James II., rule of, 58, 71, 76. 

James river, named, 52; settlements on, 
52 ; Union forces on, 368, 370. 

Jamestown, settled, 52; Indian massacres 
at, 56 ; burned, 60 ; exposition, 456. 

Japan, ports opened to commerce, 322; 
islands, 322; treaty with, 322. 

■Tava, captured, 253. 

Jay, John, treaty of Paris, 186; chief 
justice, 219 ; treaty with England, 225. 

Jay Cooke & Co.’s failure, 415. 

Jefferson, Thomas, wnites Declaration of 
Independence, 159; Secretary of State, 
218; Vice-President, 228; writes Ken¬ 
tucky Resolutions, 232 ; President, 233 ; 
reelected, 241; views of, 235; portrait, 
235; reform measures of, 235; ne¬ 


gotiates purchase of New Orleans, 238; 
West Florida, 238; purchases Louisiana, 
239; reelected, 241 ; efforts to keep out 
of war, 245 ; death of, 276. 

Jefferson City, captured, 346. 

Jerseys—see New Jersey. 

Jerusalem, 15. 

Jesuit, missionaries, 101. 

John II., of Portugal, 17; sends out ex¬ 
pedition to seek Asia, 19. 

John Brown’s Raid—see Brown, John. 

Johnson, Andrew, Vice-President, 378; 
portrait, 398; President, 399; policy of, 
399; breach with Congress, 401 ; im¬ 
peachment proceedings against, 402, 403. 

Johnson, Sir William, 1 12. 

Johnston, General Joseph E., portrait, 
347; opposing Sherman, 380; relieved 
of command, 380; in command, 382, 
383; surrender, 387. 

Johnston, General Albert Sidney, 350; 
portrait, 350; battle of Shiloh, 352, 353. 

Joliet, explorations of, 101; reaches Mis¬ 
sissippi, 102. 

Jones, John Paul, in Revolution, 178; 
portrait, 178. 

Judiciary, established, 218. 


Kanawha River, 110. 

Kansas, crossed by Coronado, 29; part 
acquired, 312; Nebraska Bill, 325; 
struggle for, 326; slavery question in, 
326 ; immigration to, 326 ; territory, 326 ; 
first territorial legislature, 327; Topeka 
free-state constitution, 327 ; rival govern¬ 
ments and civil war in, 328; admitted, 
329; first railroad, 412. 

Kansas Indians, 46. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 325. 

Kearsarge, 365. 

Kearny, General Stephen W., in Mexican 
War, 308; conquers California and New 
Mexico, 310. 

Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 380. 

Kent Island, settled, 86. 

Kentucky settled, 174 ; created a county of 
Virginia, 175; during Revolution, 174; 
resolutions, 232; increase of population 
1790-1800, 237; admitted, 266; in¬ 
vaded, 353. 

Kern, J. W., 480. 

Key West, defenses of, 339. 

King, Rufus, member Constitutional Con¬ 
vention, 196; Federalist candidate, 246, 
257. 

King, William R., 320; Vice-President, 320. 

King George’s War, 109. 

King Philip’s War, 69. 

King William’s War, 106. 

King’s Mountain, battle of, 181. 

Klondike, 477. 

Know-Nothing party, 329. 

Kncx, General, 156. 

Knox, Henry, Secretary of War, 218. 

Knoxville, 359. 

Korea, 480. 

Kosciusko, 169. 

Koszta, Martin, Affair, 323. 

Kuklux Klan, 407. 


Labrador, Northmen reach, 14 ; discovery 
of, 24. 


Index. 


509 




Labor, party, 413; Department of, 477. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, during Revolution, 
169; portrait of, 169; visits America, 
274. 

Lake Champlain, discovered, 33. 

Lake Erie, explored, 102; battle of, 251; 
picture, 251. 

Lake Huron, explored, 102. 

Lake Michigan, explored, 102. 

Lake Ontario, explored, 34. 

Lancaster, Continental Congress at, 170. 

Land grants, to railroads, 411, 412. 

Lane, Ralph, 36. 

LaRouche, colonizes Sable Island, 33. 

LaSalle, Robert de, explorations of, 102; 
portrait, 102; takes possession of Louis¬ 
iana, 103; makes settlement at Mata¬ 
gorda Bay, 103. - 

Laudonniere, leads second Huguenot ex¬ 
pedition, 32. 

Law, John, scheme of settlement, 108. 

Lawrence, Kan., founded, 327; sacked, by 
Missourians, 328. 

Lawrence, Perry’s flagship, 252. 

Leavenworth, founded, 326 ; Constitution, 
328. 

Lecompton, founded, 326; capital Kansas 
Territory, 327 ; Constitution, 328. 

Lee, Arthur, commissioner to France, 169. 

Lee, Charles, at North Castle, 162; cap¬ 
tured, 163; treachery of, 171. 

Lee, Henry, (“Light Horse Harry,”) cap¬ 
tures Paulus Hook, 177 ; guerilla leader, 
184 ; Governor of Virginia, 227. 

Lee, Richard Henry, 148; offers resolution 
declaring independence, 158. 

Lee, General Robert E., portrait, 369; 
peninsular campaigns, 369, 370; first 
invasion of the North, 370-372; Fred¬ 
ericksburg, 337; second invasion of the 
North, 374; retreat, 376, 383-385; re¬ 
treat and surrender, 386, 387. 

Legislative Assembly, first in America, 55. 

Leopard —see Chesapeake Affair. 

Letters of marque and reprisal, 178, 343. 

Lewis and Clark expedition, 239. 

Lexington, battle of, 151, 152. 

Leyden, Holland, 63. 

Liberty party, 288, 305, 312. 

Liberator, 287. 

Liberty, 143. 

Liberty Bell, 159; picture of, 159. 

Liberal Republican party, 413. 

Libraries, 462; Library of Congress, 462, 
463; picture of, 463; Boston Library, 
463. 

Lincoln, General, 168; attempts to re¬ 
capture Savannah, 176. 

Lincoln, Abraham, debates with Douglas, 
332; in Illinois senatorial contest, 332; 
President, 335; picture of his cabinet, 
342; portrait, 340; policy, 341; calls 
for troops, 344; issues Emancipation 
Proclamation, 272, 273 ; reelected, 378 ; 
assassinated, 387, 388; character, 388 l 
views on reconstruction, 398. 

Line of Demarcation, 24 ; map, 23. 

Little Belt, 248. 

Little Big Horn river, Custer defeated on, 
416. 

Little Round Top, battle on, 375. 

Livingston, Robert R., 217. 

Locke, John, 95; Grand Model of, 95. 


Log cabins, 119; picture, 120; campaign, 
288. 

Logan, John A., presidential nominee, 428. 

London Company, 50; second charter, 54. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 466; por¬ 
trait, 465. 

Long Island, fortified, 160; battle of, 160. 

Long Island Sound, settlements on, 74. 

Longstreet, General, 358. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 359. 

Loom, hand, 125; power, invented, 224. 

Lopez, General, 323. 

Lords of Trade and Plantations, 137. 

“Lost Colony,” 37. 

Louis XIV., 107. 

Louisburg (Cape Breton Island), fortified, 
108; surrendered to English, 109; re¬ 
stored to France, 109; captured by 
English, 114. 

Louisiana (Territory). LaSalle in, 103 ; takes 
possession of, 103; extent of, 104, 239; 
settlements in, 108; ceded to Spain, 115 ; 
ceded to France, 238; purchased of 
France, 238 ; boundaries of, 239 ; slavery 
excluded, 274. 

Louisiana (State), admitted, 266; secedes, 
336; two state governments in, 419. 

Louisville, 353. 

Lovejoy, Elijah, 286. 

Lovell, General, evacuates New Orleans, 
356. 

Lowell, Francis, 295. 

Lowell, James Russell, 467; portrait, 465. 

Lundy, Benjamin, 286. 

Lundy’s Lane, battle of, 253. 

Lutherans, Swedish, in Delaware, 133. 

Lyon, General, 346. 

McClellan, General George B., in 
West Virginia, 316; portrait, 348; cam¬ 
paigns, 372; characteristics of, 370; 
presidential nominee, 378. 

McCormick, Cyrus H., 298; portrait, 298. 

Macdonough, Commodore Thomas, 254. 

McKinley, William, President, 440; por¬ 
trait of, 442; assassination of, 473, 474. 

McDowell, General Irwin, campaigns, 347. 

McKinley Tariff Act, 432. 

Mackinac, reached by Marquette and 
Joliet, 101; falls into hands of British, 
251. 

Macomb, General, 254. 

Macon Bill, 247. 

Madeira Islands, discovered, 17 ; 365. 

Madison, James, Constitutional Conven¬ 
tion, 196; writes Virginia Resolutions, 
232 ; President, 246 ; portrait, 246. 

Maine, grant of, 78; extent, 78; settled, 
78; sold to Massachusetts, 71; admitted, 
266, 274; northern boundary fixed, 290. 

Magellan, Ferdinand de, circumnavigates 
globe, 28; portrait, 28. 

Maine, destruction of the, 445. 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 370. 

Manassas Junction, 347, 370. 

Manchuria, 480. 

Manhattan Island, Dutch settle, 80. 

Manila, ceded to Spain, 115 ; battle of, 446. 

Manufactures, in colonial times, 137, 141 ; 
during Revolution, 156; protection of, 
221, 274; laws regulating, 277; in 1820, 
276, 294; cotton factories, 295; in the 


510 


History of the United States. 


North, 276, 295; in the South, 276; 
after the Civil War, 414; since 1860, 
452; growth of, in the South, 455. 

Marconi, 452. 

Marcy, William G., Secretary of War, 306. 

Marietta, founded, 237. 

Marion, Francis, guerilla leader, 184. 

Markham, William, Governor of Penn¬ 
sylvania, 90. 

Marquette, explorations of, 101; reaches 
Mississippi, 102. 

Marshall, John, minister to France, 230; 
chief justice, 233 ; portrait, 233. 

Marshall, John W., 314. 

Mary, Queen, grants Massachusetts charter, 
71. 

Maryland, founded, 84; extent of grant, 
85; government of, 85; religious freedom 
in, 86 ; government, 86 ; troubles in, 86 ; 
invaded, 370. 

Mason and Dixon Line, established, 91; 
dividing line between slave and free 
states, 273. 

Mason, James M., Confederate Commis¬ 
sioner, 363. 

Mason, John, grant to, 78. 

Massachusetts, Bay Company, 66; pur¬ 
chase grant, 66; extent of, 66; charter 
granted, 66; government, 67; first 
settlement, 67; town and township 
meetings, 68; religious intolerance, 73; 
industries, 69; loses charter, 70; royal 
province, 70; opposes Townshend and 
Stamp Acts, 143 ; Government Act, 146 ; 
claims to western land, 191; rebellion 
in (see Shays’s Rebellion), 195; frees 
slaves, 272. 

Massasoit, 65. 

Matagorda Bay, French settlement at, 103. 

Matamoras, 308. 

Maximilian, 403 ; death of, 403. 

Mayflower, 63; picture, 63, 64. 

Mayflower Compact, 63. 

Meade, General George G., portrait, 375; 
in command of army of Potomac, 375; 
battle of Gettysburg, 375, 376. 

Mechanicsville, battle at, 370. 

Memphis, captured, 353. 

Memorial Day, 389. 

Menendez, Pedro, establishes St. Augus¬ 
tine, 32; massacre by, at Ft. Carolina, 
32. 

Merrimac, 363; picture of, 364; destruc¬ 
tion of, 367. 

Merrimac (coal barge), sunk in Santiago 
harbor, 447. 

Merritt, General, occupies Philippines, 446. 

Mexico, explored, 28; conquest of, 28; 
becomes a republic, 302 ; war with United 
States, 308; results of, 311; frees slaves, 
303 ; French in, 403. 

Mexican Empire, 403 ; overthrown, 403. 

Middle Colonies, settlement of, 80-92. 

Migration, west, 73, 191, 226, 236, 259, 326, 
409; routes, 259, 410, 411, 412. 

Milan Decree, 244. 

Military reservations of Virginia, 192. 

Milford, Conn., settled, 74. 

Mill Springs, 350; battle of, 352. 

Milliken’s Bend, 357. 

Mills, first in the colonies, 124; wind and 
saw, 124; increase of, 295; steam power 
introduced, 295; increase of, in North, 
453 ; cotton, 224; in South, 455. 


Mills Tariff Bill, 430. 

Mining, 453, 454. 

Ministers, influence of, in colonies, 133. 

Minnesota, 364. 

Mint, colonial, 132; first, 221; other 
mints, 221. 

Minuit, Peter, 80. 

Minute-men, 152; picture of, 149. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 359. 

Mississippi, region, first settlements in, 108 ; 
territory ceded to United States, 276; 
admitted, 266; secedes, 336; readmitted, 
403 ; carpet-bag rule in, 407. 

Mississippi river. Mound Builders along, 
13; discovered by~DeSoto, 30; by Mar¬ 
quette and Joliet, 102; French forts on, 
104; settlements on, 104, 108; free 
navigation of, 187, 224; commerce on, 
237; closed by Spanish in 1802, 238; 
valley (settlement of), 260; opening of, 
in Civil War, 350-357; forts on, below 
New Orleans, 355. 

Missouri, admitted, 266; troubles over 
question of secession, 346; war in, 346. 

Missouri Compromise, 273; repealed, 326. 

Missouri river, explored, 239. 

Mobile, becomes headquarters of French in 
south, 108; captured, 366. 

Mobile Bay, first settlement on, 108; forts 
on, 366; blockade - runners at, 366; 
battle of, 366. 

Mohawk river, expeditions up, 167, 168; 
migration west along, 259. 

Molasses Act, 137. 

Molino del Rey, battle of, 311. 

Money, in .colonial times, 131; barter, 
131; pine-tree shilling, 132; picture, 
132; substitutes for, 131; lack of, during 
Revolution, 173; up to 1792, 221; in 
use in 1912, 459. (See currency of 
United States.) 

Monitor, 363 ; picture of, 364. 

Monmouth, battle of, 171. 

Monroe, James, special minister to France, 
238; treaty with England, 245; Presi¬ 
dent, 257, 269; announces the “Monroe 
Doctrine,” 270; portrait, 269. 

Monroe Doctrine, 270, 271; Russia com¬ 
plies with, 303; Franch violate, 403; 
English comply with (see Venezuela 
boundary question), 438. 

Montana, Indian troubles in, 416; Custer 
defeated, 416 ; admitted, 412. 

Montcalm, General, 113; surrenders Que¬ 
bec, 114. 

Monterey, Cal., seized by Commodore 
Sloat, 310. 

Monterey, Mexico, battle of, 309. 

Montezuma, 28. 

Montgomery, Confederate capital, 337. 

Montgomery, Richard, invades Canada, 
156. 

Montreal, stronghold of French, 107; cap¬ 
tured by English, 114; captured by 
Americans, 156. 

Morgan, Daniel, in the North, 168; in the 
South, 181; retreat of, 183, 184. 

Mormons, 292; plural marriages pro¬ 
hibited, 293. 

Morrill Tariff—see Tariff.* 

Morris, Gouverneur, member Constitutional 
Convention, 196. 

Morris, Robert, 173; portrait, 173; mem¬ 
ber Constitutional Convention, 196. 


Index. 


511 


Morristown, Continental army at, 164. 

Morse, Prof. Samuel F. B., 299; portrait, 
299. 

Morton, Levi P., 432. 

Mound Builders, in Ohio and Mississippi 
valleys, 13. 

Mountain System of North America, 41. 

Mount Vernon, 124 ; picture, 228. 

“Mugwumps,” 428. 

Murfreesboro, battle of, 355. 

Mystic river, Pequot fort on, 74. 

Napoleon, Consul of France, plans to re¬ 
establish French power in America, 238 ;‘ 
sells Louisiana, 238; decrees of, 243; 
deception of, 247. 

Napoleon, III., 403. 

Narragansett Indians, 46; attitude toward 
whites, 65. 

Narvaez, explores Gulf coast, 29. 

Nassau, blockade-running to, 362. 

Nashville, battle of, 382; evacuation, 382. 

Natchez, captured by Farragut, 356. 

National Bank, first, 221; loses charter, 
257; second, 257; efforts to recharter, 
282, 290 ; removal of deposits, 282 ; pres¬ 
ent established, 394. 

National Capital, 219; at New York, 219; 
at Philadelphia, 219; at Washington, 
219. 

National Banks, established, 394. 

National Prohibition party, 440. 

National pure-food law, 478. 

National Republican party—see Republi¬ 
can. 

National Silver party, 440. 

National Surplus—see Surplus Revenue. 

Naturalization Act, 232 ; laws, 232. 

Nauvoo, built, 293. 

Naval warfare, in Revolution, 178; in war 
of 1812, 253; in Civil War, 361-365; in 
Spanish-American War, 446, 447. 

Navigation Acts, 59, 137. 

Navy Department, created, 231; Secretary 
appointed, 231. 

Navy, created, 178; in Revolution, 178; 
in war of 1812, 253; in 1861, 361; ob¬ 
jects of, 361; blockade of South, 361; 
coast operations, 365; since 1860, 454; 
in Spanish-American War, 446, 447; 
picture of Olympic, 454; development of, 
455. 

Naval Cruise of 1907, 480. 

Nebraska, territory organized, 325; growth 
of, 411 ; admitted, 411. 

Negroes, beginning of slavery, 56; freed, 
372; position after the war, 397-401; 
legislation against, 400. 

Netherlands—see Protestant Netherlands. 

Neutrality, of United States, 226; obliga¬ 
tions broken by England, 365. 

Neutrality Proclamation, 226. 

Nevada, acquired, 312; silver discovered 
in, 409; organized, 409; admitted, 409. 

New Albion, Drake names, 35. 

New Amsterdam, founded, 80; becomes 
New York, 83; picture of, in 1656, 458. 

New Brunswick, British at, 164. 

New England, coast explored, 38; settle¬ 
ment of, 62; colonies in, 75; Indian 
Wars in, 69, 74; center of shipbuilding, 
124; stage-coaches in 1672, 128.; public 
schools and colleges before the Revolu¬ 


tion, 129; church established by law, 133 ; 
manufactures in, 137. 

New France, explored, 31; taken posses¬ 
sion of, 31, 102; named, 31; extent of, 
104 ; attempt to plant colony in, 31. 

New Hampshire, grant of, 78; extent, 78; 
divided, 78; settled, 78; becomes a part 
of Massachusetts, 78; separate colony, 
78 ; colleges in, 130. 

New Haven, colony founded, 74; govern¬ 
ment, 74; annexed to Connecticut col¬ 
ony, 75. 

New Jersey, a part of New York, 87; be¬ 
comes English province, 87; sold, 87; 
settled, 87; government, 87; divided, 
88; Quakers buy, 88; becomes royal 
province, 88; education in, 129; Wash¬ 
ington’s retreat across, 161; plan of Con¬ 
stitution, 196. 

New Madrid, captured, 352. 

New Mexico, crossed by Coronado, 29; 
explored, 29; named, 29; first settle¬ 
ment in (Santa Fe), 29 ; conquest of, 310 ; 
acquired, 312; organized, 318; first rail¬ 
road, 412; admitted, 482. 

New Netherland, discovered, 38; named, 
38; grant, 80 ; extent, 80 ; government, 
82 ; religious toleration, 82 ; captured by 
English, 83; granted Duke of York, 83; 
becomes New York, 83; extent of grant, 
83. 

New Orleans, founded, 108; ceded to 
Spain, 115; right of deposit at, 225; 
“right of deposit” withdrawn, 238; 
battle of, 255; chief city of Confederacy, 
355; captured, 355. 

New Orleans Cotton Exposition, 455. 

New Sweden, settled, 83; becomes part of 
New Netherland, 83. 

New York (city), New Amsterdam be¬ 
comes, Dutch settle, 80; colonial Con¬ 
gress at, 141; evacuated by Americans, 
161 ; British occupation of, 161; capital 
of United States, 219; strives for com¬ 
merce of the West, 259 ; “bread riots” in, 
284; opposition to draft in, 377 ; “Tweed 
Ring” in, 416, 417; picture of, in 1912, 
459. 

New York (state), New Netherland be¬ 
comes, 83 ; manufactures in, 137; Eng¬ 
lish in, 160-177; claims to western land, 
191; colleges in, 129 ; route to the West, 
through, 259. 

Newark, founded, 88. 

Newbern, captured, 366. 

Newfoundland, Northmen reach, 14 ; coast 
explored, 31; attempted settlement of, 
35 ; ceded to England, 108. 

Newport, founded, 72; united with Provi¬ 
dence, 76; during Revolution, 174. 

Newport, Captain, 52. 

Newspapers, in colonial times, 130; modern, 
461; Associated Press, 461. 

Niagara, 252. 

Niagara, in colonial times, 112; held by 
English, 225. 

Niagara Falls, Joliet and Marquette at, 101. 

Nicaragua, filibustering expeditions to, 323, 
476. 

Nicolet, Jean, 101. 

Nina, 20. 

Nominating conventions, 282. 

Non-Importation Act, 245. 

Non-Importation Agreement, 141. 


512 


History of the United States . 


Non-Intercourse Act, 246. 

Norfolk, Merrimac at, 365; abandoned by 
Unionists, 363; by Confederates, 366. 

North, Lord, 186. 

North America, Northmen reach, 14; dis¬ 
covered, 24 ; mountain and river system 
of, 41; country, 42 ; climate, 42 ; period 
of settlement in, 49. 

North Anna, battle of, 384. 

North Carolina, beginning of, 95 ; separated 
from South Carolina, 95; sold to crown, 
96; becomes royal province, 96; social 
and economic life in, 96 ; claim to western 
land, 191; secedes, 345; Sherman’s 
march through, 383; readmitted, 402. 

North Castle, American forces at, 161. 

North Dakota, admitted, 412. 

Northern attitude toward slavery, 286, 313. 

Northern Democratic party, 334. 

Northern Pacific Railroad, 412. 

Northmen, or Norsemen, 14; picture of, 14. 

Northwest, explorations of, during Revolu¬ 
tion, 175; England holds posts and forts 
in, 195 ; gold found in, 412 ; settlement 
of, 412; water boundary settled, 408. 

Northwest passage to India, 38. 

Northwest Territory, ceded by states, 191; 
organized, 191; government of, 191; 
Indian wars in, 227; immigration into, 
236 ; census of 1790, 237. 

Nova Scotia, visited by Norsemen, 14; 
explored by Cabot, 24; settled by 
French, 33 ; called Acadia, 33. 

Nueces river, 307. 

Nullification doctrine, 232, 280; Act, 281. 


Oglethorpe, James^ secured grant of 
Georgia, 97 ; portrait, 96. 

Ohio, settled, admitted, 266. 

Ohio Company, 109. 

O’Hara, General, 186. 

Ohio river, Mound Builders along, 13; 
French on, 110; settlements on, 237, 260; 
highway of trade and emigration, 237; 
first steamboat on, 260. 

Oklahoma, 312 ; acquired, 312; organized, 
412, 413; purchased, 413; opened to 
settlement, 413; admitted, 413. 

Oklahoma City, 413. 

Old North Church, 151. 

Old Point Comfort, 54. 

Omnibus Bill—see Compromise of 1850. 

Orators, colonial, 202; Webster, Clay, and 
Calhoun, 317, 320; national, 467. 

Orders in Council, 246. 

Ordinance of 1787, 191. 

Oregon, Country, explored by English, 35; 
by Americans, 240; first permanent 
settlement in, 240; claimed by other 
nations, 240, 303; joint occupation of, 
303; claims established by United States, 
240; opens way to Pacific, 267; emigra¬ 
tion to, 303; settlement of boundary, 
306; admitted, 307; organized, 307; 
boundary treaty, 306. 

Orinoco river, Columbus at, 22. 

Oregon Trail, 315. 

Osawatomie, founded, 327; plundered and 
burned, 328. 

Osceola, 286. 

Ostend manifesto, 323. 

Oswego (N. Y.), 113; captured by French, 
113; held by English, 225. 


Otis, General, in Philippines, 470. 

Otis, James, 138. 

Overland Campaign, 384. 

Overland stage, 410. 

Oxford, 357. 

Pacific Coast, explored by Spanish, 29; 
by the English, 35; named New Albion, 
35 ; settlement of, 315, 412. 

Pacific Ocean, discovered, 27; named, 27. 

Pacific Railroad, 316. 

Paine, Thomas, 158. 

Pakenham, General, 255. 

Palma, T. Estrada, President of Cuba, 469. 

Palmer, John M., 440. 

Palo Alto, 308; battle of, 309. 

Palos, Spain, 20. 

Panama, Spanish at, 27; Isthmus of, 315 ; 
canal, 474-476 ; a republic, 476 ; treaty 
with, 476; map, 475. 

Paper currency, of colonial times, 132, 154 ; 
continental, 172; state, 194; of United 
States, 394; greenbacks, 394.; national 
bank notes, 394 ; silver certificates, 421; 
treasury notes, 434; gold certificates, 
459. 

Paris, treaty of (1763), 114; treaty of 
(1783), 186; violation of the latter by 
England and the United States, 195. 

Parker, Alton B., 479. 

Parliament, 138. 

Partisan leaders, picture, 183. 

Party Platforms, 288, 305, 312, 320, 329, 
334, 377, 378, 404, 413, 417, 418, 422, 
428, 432, 436, 440, 473, 479, 480. 

Patents; patents issued from 1860 to 1910, 
451. 

Patroons, 81. 

Patterson, General Robert, 347. 

Paulus Hook, captured, 177. 

Pawcatuck river, 77. 

Pawnee—see Shawnee Mission. 

Payne-Aldrich Law, 481. 

Peace Conference, of Virginia, 336. 

Peace movement, 471, 472. 

Pemberton, General, 356. 

Pendleton Civil-Service Act, 420. 

Peninsular campaign, 368-370. 

Penn, William, buys East Jersey, 88; por¬ 
trait, 89; a Quaker, 89; secures Penn¬ 
sylvania, 90; Indian policy of, 91 ; picture 
(treaty with Indians), 92. 

Pennsylvania, granted to Penn, 89 ; settle¬ 
ment, 90; charter and Great Body of 
Laws, 90; extent of, 91; growth of, 
92 ; education in, 129 ; builds road across 
mountains, 264; invaded by Confed¬ 
erates, 375, 376, 385; University of, 130. 

Pensacola, settled, 108; captured by 
Andrew Jackson, 270. 

Pensions, 393, 472. 

People’s party, 435, 436, 4S0. 

Pequot War, 74. 

Percy, Lord, 152. 

Perdido river, boundary between French 
and Spanish possessions in South, 108. 

Period of settlement, 49, 80, 94. 

Perry, Commodore M. C., opens ports of 
Japan, 322. 

Perry, Oliver Hazard, victory on Lake 
Erie, 251. 

Perryville, battle of, 354. 

Personal-Liberty laws, 319, 332. 



Index. 


513 


Petersburg, movement on, 385; siege of, 
386; abandoned, 386. 

“Pet banks,” 283 

Philadelphia, founded, 90; growth of, 90; 
Continental Congress at, 158; Declara¬ 
tion of Independence in, 157-159 ; capital 
of Colonies, 158, 161 ; Howe moves 
against, 161, 168; campaigns around, 
170; captured, 170; Tories of, 172; 
Constitutional Convention at, 196; 
route to West through, 259, 264; strives 
for commerce of West, 259; Centennial 
at, 417. 

Philanthropist, 287. 

Philippine Assembly, 470, 471. 

Philippine Islands, discovered, 28; under 
Spanish rule, 446; in rebellion, 446; 
captured, 446; new problems, 469; 
war in, 470; military rule, 470; civil 
government, 471; area and population, 
471. 

Phillips, Wendell, 286. 

Phipps, Sir William, captures Port Royal, 
107. 

Phoenix, 260. 

Pickens, Andrew, guerilla leader, 184. 

Pickett, General, 376. 

Pierce, Franklin, President, 320; portrait, 
322. 

Pike’s Peak, gold discovered at, 409. 

Pilgrims, leave England, 63 ; land in Amer¬ 
ica, 64; “Pilgrims Going to Church,” 
(picture), 68. 

Pinckney, Charles C., Federalist candidate, 
246; special minister to France, 230; 
to Spain, 238. 

Pinckney, William, treaty with England, 
245. 

Pinta, 20. 

Pinzon, 21. 

Pitcairn, Major, 152. 

Pitt, William, 113, 149; portrait, 149. 

Pittsburg, founded, 110; route to the 
West through, 237, 259; steamboat 
launched at, 260; a center for western 
travel, 000; center of iron industry, 453. 

Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 352. 

Pizarro, conquers Peru, 30. 

Plains of Abraham, 114. 

“Plantations,” 54. 

Platt, United States Senator, 424; resigns 
sc&t, 424. 

Plattsburg, battle of, 252. 

Plymouth, England, 50. 

Plymouth, Company, 50; Colony, 50; 
grant, 50; relations with Indians, 65; 
charter, 66; growth, 65; claims sold to 
Pilgrims, 66; intolerance, 72; become 
part of Massachusetts Bay Colony, 71. 

Plvmouth, N. C., Albemarle destroyed off, 
367. 

Plymouth Rock, 64. 

Pocahontas, 53. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 464. 

Point Isabel, 308. 

Political issues (see Party Platforms), new, 
274. 

Political parties, beginning of, 198, 222; 
(see Federalists, Democrats, Republicans, 
etc.;) new, 277, 284, 288, 305, 312, 329, 
334, 418, 436; reconstruction of, 480. 

Polk, James Knox, President, 305; plans, • 
306; portrait, 306. 

Polo, Marco, 18. 


Polygamy, 292.' 

Pontiac’s Conspiracy, 116. 

Pony express, 410; picture of, 410. 

Pope, General John, captures New Madrid, 
352 ; second Bull Run, 370. 

Pope, Alexander VI., 23. 

Population, growth of, 1790-1860, 267; by 
decades, 267 ; growth of, 1860-1910, 456 ; 
center of (in 1790, 1860, 1900, 1910), 
457 ; map of center, 457. 

Popular Sovereignty—see “Squatter Sover¬ 
eignty.” 

Populist party—see People’s Party. 

Port Gibson, battle of, 357. 

Port Hudson, surrenders, 357. 

Port Royal (Annapolis), settled, 33; 
French stronghold, 107; captured by 
English, 108; called Annapolis, 33. 

Port Royal, S. C., settled, 32 ; wiped out by 
Spanish, 32 ; captured, 366. 

Portland, Maine, settled, 78. 

Porter, Admiral, at Vicksburg, 357. 

Porto Rico, discovered, 22; settled, 27; 
Spanish rule in, 443, 444; ceded to the 
United States, 448; civil government, 
470. 

Portsmouth, R. I., founded, 72 ; united with 
Providence, 76. 

Portsmouth, N. H., settled, 78. 

Portuguese, discoveries, 17, 25; granted 
heathen lands by Pope, 23; in Brazil, 
38; explorers, 38. 

Postal system, in colonial times, 130. 

Postoffice, department, created, 154; 
seized by Confederacy, 337. 

Potatoes, taken to Europe, 36. 

Potomac river, settlements on, 85 ; English 
expedition up, 112; route to West, 259. 

Powhatan, 53. 

Prescott, Colonel, 154. 

President, 248. 

President, plan of choosing, 197; changed, 
233. 

Presidential election, method of, 198 ; first, 
200; second, 228; 1800,233; 1804,241; 
1808,246; 1812,246; 1816,257; 1820, 
269; 1824,275; 1828,277; 1832,282; 
1836, 284 ; 1840, 288 ; 1844, 305 ; 1848, 
312; 1852, 320; 1856, 329; 1860, 334; 
1864, 377, 378; 1868, 404; 1872, 413; 
1876,417; 1880,422; 1884,428; 1888, 
432 ; 1892, 436 ; 1896, 440; 4900, 473 ; 
1904, 479; 1908, 480. 

Presidential Succession Act, 429. 

Presque Isle (now Erie), built, 110; Perry 
builds fleet at, 252. 

Prevost, General, captures Savannah, 175, 
254. 

Price, General, 356. 

Prince Henry, the “Navigator,” 17. 

Princeton, battle of, 164. 

Pring, Martin, voyages, 37. 

Printing-press, invented, 15; Franklin 
press, 461; modern Hoe Cylinder press, 
462. 

Privateers, during war of 1812, 254. 

Proclamation Line, 116. 

Prohibition party, 440, 480. 

Proprietary colonics, 78, 83, 85, 87, 89, 94, 

' 96. 

Protestant Netherlands, 37. 

Providence, land purchased from Indians, 
76; plantations, 76; charter secured, 
77; religious freedom, 77. 




514 


History of the United States. 


Public domain, states cede land to Congress, 
191 ; sale of lands in, 283. 
ublic lands—see Public Domain. 

Public health, measures to protect, 478. 

Pulaski, 1G9. 

Puritan Revolution, 58. 

Puritans, 62 ; persecutions of, 57 ; become 
Separatists, 62 ; in New England, 67, 133. 

Putnam, Israel, 147, 160. 

Quartering Act, 147. 

Quebec, attempt to colonize, 31 ; strong¬ 
hold of French, 107; captured by Eng¬ 
lish, 114 ; becomes English province, 116 ; 
Act, 117, 147; Americans besiege, 156. 

Queenstown Heights, battle of, 252. 

Queen Anne’s War, 107. 

Quakers, persecuted in colonies, 72, 73 ; set¬ 
tlements, 88, 133 ; creed of, 89. 

Radical Republicans, 378. 

Railroads, picture of first train, 266; early, 
264, 411; effect of steam engines on, 264 ; 
increase of mileage, 266, 453 ; land grants 
to, 411, 412; built after the Civil War, 
414; strike of 1877, 421 ; land grants to, 
411, 412 ; since 1860, 453 ; abuses by, 430. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, plants colonies, 36; 
grant, 36; portrait, 36. 

Randolph, Edmond, member Constitutional 
Convention, 196 ; Attorney-General, 218. 

Ranger, 178. 

Rapidan river, 376. 

Rappahannock river, 373. 

Rate Law, 431. 

Rawdon, Lord, 184. 

Raymond, battle of, 357. 

Reaper, invented, 297. 

Reciprocity, 433. 

Reclamation of the West, 479. 

Reconcentration camps, 444. 

Reconstruction, 397; Lincoln’s views of, 
398; Johnson’s plan, 399; Congres¬ 
sional plan of, 400; carried by military 
rule, 401; Act, 401. 

“Red-Coats,” 152. 

Redemptioners, 127. 

Reeder, Andrew H., Governor Kansas Ter¬ 
ritory, 327. 

Regulating Act (see Massachusetts Gov¬ 
ernment Act), 146. 

Reid, Whitelaw, 436. 

Religion, in the colonies, 51, 132; different 
views of, 71; in New Amsterdam 82; 
intolerance, 133 ; freedom of, 86. 

Representative Assembly, the first, 54. 

Representatives, election of, 196, 197, 203. 

Republican party, formed, 277, 329. 

Resaca, battle of, 380. 

Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 309. 

Resumption of specie payment—see Specie 
Resumption Act. 

Return of peace after Civil War, 388. 

Revenue, measures to provide, 220; col¬ 
lectors, 220, 285, 430. 

Revere, Paul, 145, 151; picture of his ride, 
151. 

Revolutionary War, 136-188; causes of, 
132, 136; preparations for, 149; lack of 
military supplies, 156; invasion of 
Canada, 156; campaigns in New York 
and New Jersey, 160; object of British, 


160; campaigns in the North, 165-173; 
mutiny during, 173; western border, war 
along, 174; in the South, 180; cost of, 
188. 

Rhode Island, settled, 72, 76; religious 
freedom in, 76 ; patent secured, 76 ; gov¬ 
ernment, 76 ; charter secured, 77 ; extent 
of grant, 77; charter government of, 77, 
292 ; colleges in, 129. 

Ribault, John, establishes Port Royal, 32. 

Rich Mountain, battle of, 346. 

Richelieu river, explored, 33. 

Richmond, Confederate capital, 337 ; cam¬ 
paign against, 384; siege and capture of, 
386. 

“Right of Deposit,” 225; withdrawn, 238. 

Rio Grande river, becomes southern 
boundary of United States, 312; block¬ 
ade to, during Civil War, 361. 

River system of North America, 41. 

Roads, first, 128; improvement of, 129; 
western, 237, 264, 410. 

Roanoke Island, first colony, 36; second, 
37; captured, 366. 

Robertson, James, 175. 

Robertson, Willialn, collector of port of 
New York, 424. 

Roberval, Lord, plants colony, 31. 

Robinson, John, 63. 

Rochambeau, Count, 1S5. 

“Rocket,” the, 265. 

Rontgen’s X-ray, 452. 

Rogers, Captain, 248. 

Rolfe, John, 53. 

Roman Catholics, in Maryland, 84, 133. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, in Spanish-American 
War, 447; President, 474; policy of, 
479; reelected, 480; promotes civil- 
service reform, 479. 

Rosecrans, General, campaigns, 355. 

Ross, General, 255. 

“Rough Riders,” 447. 

Roxbury, settled, 67. 

Royal colonies, 57, 71, 76, 88, 96, 98. 

Royal governors, 57, 58, 71, 75, 139. 

Rumsey, James, 259. 

Russia, possessions, claims on the Pacific, 
240; settlements in California, 271; 
complies with JMonroe Doctrine, 272; 
treaty of 1824, 272; attitude during 
Spanish-American War, 447. 

Rutleges, 148. 

Ryswick, treaty of, 107; effect in America, 
107. 


St. Augustine, founded, 32 ; besieged, 98; 
English attack, 108. 

St. Clair, defeat of, 166 ; in Northwest, 227. 
St. Croix river, 187. 

St. Ignace, 104. 

St. John river, 291; Huguenot settlement 
on, 32. 

St. Joseph, stage route at, 410. 

St. Lawrence river, discovered, 31 ; ex¬ 
plored, 31 ; fortified by French, 108. 

St. Leger, Colonel, expedition, 167. 

St. Louis, settled, exposition, 378. 

St. Mary’s, founded, 85. 

Sable Island, colonized, 33. 

Sac and Fox Indians, removed west of 
Mississippi, 286. 

Sackett’s Harbor, battle of, 252. 



Index 


515 


Saco, massacre, 107. 

Sacramento, gold discovered near, 314; 

Central Pacific Railroad started at, 411. 
“Sagas,” 14. 

Salem, settled, 67; witchcraft, 70; Mas¬ 
sachusetts legislature at, 149. 

Salem, N. J., settled, 88. 

Salmon Falls massacre, 107. 

Salt Lake City, built by Mormons, 293. 
Saltillo, 310. 

Samoan Islands annexed, 443. 

Sampson, Rear Admiral, portrait of, 446. 
San Francisco, seized, 310 ; rapid growth of, 
315. 


San Gabriel, battle of, 310. 

San Jacinto, 363. 

San Jacinto, battle of, 303. 

San Juan Hill, battle of, 447. 

San Luis Potosi, 309. 

San Salvador, discovered, 21. 

Sandusky, Perry’s fleet at, 252. 

Sanitary Commission, 391. 

Santa Anna, 303, 309. 

Santa Fe Trail, 310, 315. 

Santa Fe, settled, 29; captured, 310. 

Santa F6 Railroad, 412. 

Santa Maria, 20. 

Santiago de Cuba, battles, 447; captured, 
447. 

Saratoga, battle of, 168; result of sur¬ 
render, 168. 

Sault St. Marie, 104. 

Savage Station, battle of, 370. 

Savannah, settled, 97; captured, 175; 
attempt to recapture, 176; captured by 
Sherman, 383. 

Savannah, 260. 

Saybrook, Fort, 73. 

Scandinavia, home of Northmen, 14. 

Schenectady (N. Y.) massacre, 107. 

Schley, Commodore, portrait, 446. 

Schofield, General John M., 366. 

Schools, public, in the colonies, 129 ; system 
of, 460. 

School lands, 193. Plan for—see North¬ 
west Territory. 

Schuyler, General, 166. 

Scott, General Winfield, in War of 1812, 
253; ordered to Charleston, 281; in 
Mexican War, 310; Presidential nominee, 
320; portrait, 347. 

Scrooby, England, 63. 

Sea of Darkness, 23. 

Sea-to-sea grants, 54, 66, 75, 94, 97, 104, 
191. 


Seal fisheries, 439. 

Secession, 336; first expression of, 280; 
of southern states, 337. 

Sedition Act—see Alien and Sedition Act. 

Sedgwick, General, 373. 

Seminary Ridge, battle on, 375. 

Seminole, Indians, 46; war, 269; removed 
west of Mississippi, 286. 

Senate, 196, 204; organized, 218. 

Senators of United States* election of, 196, 
203 ; by popular vote, 482. 

Seneca, Indians, 46; long house, 45. 

Separatists—see Puritans. 

Serapis, 178. 

Settlements—Spanish, 28-30; English, 34, 
37, 39.; Dutch, 80, 87; French, 32, 100- 
104 ; Swedish, 83; unite to oppose In¬ 
tolerable Acts, 147; United, become 
United States, 159. 


“Seven Cities of Cibola,” 29. 

Seven days’ battle, 369. 

Seven Pines, battle of, 369. 

Sevier, John, 175. 

Sewall, Arthur, 440. 

Seward, William H., debates on slavery, 
316; attacked, 387. 

Sewing-machine invented, 296; picture of 
first, 296. 

Seymour, Horatio, presidential nominee, 

, 404. 

Shatter, General, captures Santiago, 447. 

Shakespeare, 34. 

Shannon, 254. 

Shannon, Wilson, Governor Kansas Terri¬ 
tory, 327. 

Shawnee Mission, 327. 

Shawnee Indians, 46, 248. 

Shays’s Rebellion, 195. 

Shenandoah, the, 363, 365. 

Shenandoah valley, 372; Confederate 
raids in, 368, 385; laid waste by Sheri¬ 
dan, 385. 

Sheridan, General Phil, portrait, 379, 385; 
raid of, 384, 385. 

Sherman, James S., 480. 

Sherman, Roger, member Constitutional 
Convention, 196. 

Sherman Anti-Trust Law, 480. 

Sherman, General W. T., portrait, 379, 
382 ; movement on Vicksburg, 356, 357 ; 
campaigns, 380; march to Atlanta, 380 ; 
march to the sea, 382 ; march through the 
Carolinas, 383 ; battle at Averysboro and 
Bentonviile, 383. 

Sherman Act, 433; repealed, 437. 

Shiloh, battle of, 352. 

Shipping, in colonial times, 83, 137; ship¬ 
building, 69, 294; center of, 69; and 
merchant marine to 1860, 243j 247; 
since 1860, 454, 455. 

Shirley, Governor, 113. 

Silver, free coinage of 1792, 222; purchase 
clause repealed, 434; discovery of, in 
Nevada, 409; demonetized, 414; agita¬ 
tion for coinage of, 420; Sherman Act, 
433. 

Sioux Indians, 46; massacre settlers, 416; 
defeated, 416. 

“Sitting Bull,” 416. 

Slater, Samuel, 295. 

Slave states, secede, 337; readmitted, 402. 

Slavery, introduced, 56; in colonial times, 
96, 126; in the territories, 307; at the 
outbreak of the Revolution, 272; pro¬ 
hibited in Northwest territory, 193; 
slave trade prohibited, 223, 273; abol¬ 
ished in New England, 272; issue be¬ 
tween North and South, 273; prohibited 
in Louisiana Territory, 274; beyond the 
Mississippi, 274, 305; slave trade sup¬ 
pressed, 291; interests try to buy Texas, 
305 ; effort to buy Cuba, 324 ; in Texas, 
305; demand for more territory, 323; 
disputes about, 316; agitation renewed, 
326; in Kansas, 326; Dred Scott de¬ 
cision, 331 ; breach widens between 
North and South, 276, 334; Emancipa¬ 
tion Proclamation, 372; during Civil 
War, 397; position of negro after the 
war, 397-401. 

Slidell, John, 308; Confederate Commis¬ 
sioner, 363. 

Sloat, Commodore J. D., 308, 310. 



516 


History of the United States. 


Smith, Green C., presidential nominee, 418. 

Smith, John, at Jamestown, 53; explores 
rivers and coast of New England, 53; 
among the Indians, 53; portrait, 53. 

Smith, Joseph, 292. 

Smith, General Kirby, 353, 354. 

Smuggling, in colonial times, 137. 

Social classes, in the colonies, 126; social 
distinctions leveled, 127. 

Socialist-Labor party, 440. 

Social-Labor party, 480. 

Socialist party, 480. 

Solis, 25. 

Sons of Liberty, 141. 

Sons of Veterans, 390. 

Soule, minister to Spain, 324. 

South, fears of, 335; at close of Civil War, 
401; carpet-bag rule in, 406; the new, 
455. 

South America, discovered, 22; coast ex¬ 
plored, 25. 

South-American republics. 271. 

South Carolina, beginning of, 95 ; separated 
from North Carolina, 95; social and 
economic life, 96; sold to crown, 96; 
royal province, 96 ; large plantations, 96 ; 

• invaded by British, 180; recovered by 
Americans, 184; claim to western land, 
191; railroad-building in, 265; passes 
nullification ordinance, 281; repeals it, 
282; secedes, 336; Sherman’s march 
through, 383 ; readmitted, 402 ; carpet¬ 
bag rule in, 406; two state governments 
in, 419. 

South Dakota, admitted, 412. 

South Mountain Pass, battle of, 372. 

Southern States, settlement of, 50, 84, 94, 
97 ; industries of, 222, 273 ; attitude to¬ 
ward slavery, 223, 272; form Confed¬ 
eracy, 337; at beginning of war, 337; 
war in, 343-387 ; blockade of, 361 ; new 
constitutions of, 399, 402; readmitted, 
402 ; carpet-bag ride in, 408. 

Southern Colonies, 50, 84, 94, 97; occupa¬ 
tions and industries, 55, 96, 97. 

Southern Democratic party, 334. 

Southwest, first railroad in, 412; settle¬ 
ment of, 412. 

Spain, cedes Florida to England, 115; dis¬ 
putes with, 224 ; American treaty, 224 ; 
revolutions against, 444-446; attitude 
during Civil War, 348; gives up claim to 
Oregon Country, 239, 270 ; cedes Florida 
to United States, 270; cedes Porto Rico, 
Guam, Philippines, to United States, 448. 

Spanish discoveries and explorations, 21- 
39 ; on the Pacific, 29 ; settlements, 28- 
30 ; conquests, 28, 30 ; possessions, 39 ; 
claims, 1609, 39; boundary line, 270; 
fleet at Manila, 446, 447; at Santiago, 
447 ; power in America broken, 443. 

Spanish America, discovered, 22 ; republics, 
271, 302. 

Spanish-American War, 443-448; war de¬ 
clared, 445; preparations for, 445; sea 
fights, 446, 447; treaty of peace, 448; 
cost of, 448; results of, 448. 

Spanish Armada—see Invincible Armada. 

Spanish Monarchs—see Ferdinand and 
Isabella. 

Specie, Circular, 284; Resumption Act, 
416. 

Specie payments, suspended, 257. 


Speculation in 1836, 283 ; excessive, in ’60s, 
414, 415. 

Speedwell, 63. 

Spencer, 34. 

Spinning-jenny, 224. 

“Spirit of ’76,’’ picture, 153. 

Spoils System, 279, 419. 

Spottsylvania Court House, battle of, 3S4. 

Springfield, Mass., arsenal seized, 195. 

“Squatter Sovereignty” or Popular Sov¬ 
ereignty, 326. 

Stage-coach, 128; lines, 128, 129; in the 
West, 410 ; picture of, 410. 

“Stalwarts,” 424. 

Stamford, Conn., founded, 74. 

Stamp Act, 139, 140; picture of stamps, 
140; opposition to, 140; repealed, 142; 
Congress, 142. 

Standish, Miles, 64. 

Stanton, Edwin M., Secretary of War, 
388; at Lincoln’s death-chamber, 388; 
removed by Johnson, 402; reinstated, 
402. 

Star of the West, 337 ; fired upon, 339. 

Stark, Colonel John, 167. 

State banks, 256. 

State Constitutions, formation of, 190; in 
South, after the Civil War, 399, 401. 

State debts, of Revolution, 195, 220. 

State Rights, doctrine of, 256, first expres¬ 
sion of, 280. 

Staten Island, British hold, 160. 

States, thirteen original, government; of, 
190; claim western land, 191; cede 
claims to United States, 191. 

States, new, admitted, 266, 412, 483 ; table 
showing when admitted, 491. 

Steamboats, 259. 

Steam engines, 265; picture, 265, 453 ; in¬ 
fluence on railroad construction, 265; 
first in United States, 265. 

Stephens, Alexander H., Vice-President 
Confederate States, 337. 

Stephenson, George, invents locomotive, 
265. 

Steuben, Baron, 169. 

Stevens, John, 000. 

Stevenson, Adlai E., 436, 473. 

Stewart, G. T., 418. 

Stillwater, battle of, 168. 

Stockton, Commodore Robert F., 308, 310. 

“Stonewall ” Jackson—see Jackson, General 
T. J. 

Stony Point, built, 176; battle of, 176. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 324; portrait, 324. 

Strikes, 437. 

Struggle for commercial freedom, 243; 
events leading to War of 1812, 243-248. 

Struggle for supremacy, in Europe, 106; 
in America, 106. 

Stuart, General J. E. B., 384. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, 82. 

Subtreasury, plan, 285; Act, 285; re¬ 
pealed, 290; reestablished, 306. 

Suffrage party (in Rhode Island), 292. 

Sullivan, General, 163 ; defeats Indians and 
Tories, 174. 

Sumner, Charles, “Crime against Kansas,” 
327; assaulted by Brooks, 327; seat 
kept vacant by Massachusetts, 327. 

Sumter, 363. 

Sumter, Thomas, guerilla leader, 184. 


Index. 


517 


Supreme Court, established, 219; gives 
Dred Scott decision, 331. 

Surplus revenue, 235; in 1836, 283; in 
1888, 430. 

Sutter, Captain, 314. 

Swedish, settlements, 83. 

Taft, William H., governor of Philippines, 
470; President, 480-483; portrait of, 
481 ; signing act admitting Arizona (pic¬ 
ture), 482. 

Talleyrand, 231. 

Tampa Bay, DeSoto lands at, 30. 

Taney, Roger B., 282. 

Tariff, first, 1789, 220; protective, of 1816, 
295; protective, of 1824 and 1828, 276; 
of 1832, 281; compromise, of 1833, 281; 
of 1842, 290; 1846, 306*; Morrill, of 

1861, 393; Mills bill, 430; Payne-Al- 
drich, 481 ; reduction of, in 1872, 430; 
McKinley, 1890, 432 ; Wilson, 1894, 439 ; 
Dingley, 1897 ; Payne-Aldrich, 481. 

Tarleton, Colonel, 181. 

Tax, in colonies, 139, 142; repealed, 142, 
144 ; first direct, 232. 

Taxation, in the colonies, without repre¬ 
sentation, 139. 

Taylor, General Zachary, 307; in Mexican 
War, 308 ; President, 312 ; portrait, 314 ; 
death of, 318. 

Tecumseh, 248. 

Telegraph, invented, 299. 

Teller, Henry M., 440. 

Tea tax, 144. 

Telephone, 452. 

Tennessee, 366 ; destruction of, 367. 

Tennessee, during Revolution, 174, 175; 
admitted, 266; secedes, 345; during 
Civil War, 353, 355. 

Tenure-of-Office Act, 402. 

Territorial expansion—see Acquisition of 
Territory. 

Territory, Northwest, formed, 191; struggle 
for more, 323, 324. See Acquisition of. 

Texas, French settlement in, 103; claimed 
as part of Louisiana, 239; settlement of, 
302 ; a republic, 303 ; maintains slavery, 
303; annexed to United States, 307; 
boundary dispute, 307, 308; land pur¬ 
chased by the United States, 318; secedes, 
336 ; development since 1870, 456. 

Thames river, battle of, 252. 

Thayer, Eli, 327. 

Thirteen colonies, 98. 

Thomas, General George H., portrait, 358; 
campaigns, 381, 382; at Mills Springs, 
352. 

Thomas, General Lorenzo, Secretary of 
War, "402. 

Thornton, Captain, 308. 

Thresher, invented, 298. 

Tilden, Samuel, J., presidential nominee, 
418. 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 248. 

Tobacco, taken to Europe, 36 ; main source 
of wealth in Virginia, 55. 

Toleration Act, 86. 

Tompkins, Daniel D., Vice-President, 257. 

Tonty, Henri de, 102. 

Topeka, founded, 327; free-state constitu¬ 
tion, 327. 

Torel, General, 448. 


Tories, 174, 180; picture of confiscated 
property of, 187. 

Toscanelli, 48. 

Town meeting, 68, 69. 

Townshend Acts, 142; effect of, 143. 

Trade, in colonial times, 59; laws regulat¬ 
ing, 137, 194; about 1812, 243, 245; 
West-Indian, 225; with England, 294; 
stimulated, 316. 

Trade routes, map of, 16; of Europe, 16. 

Transportation, Bill, in colonial days, 127; 
means of, 128, 146; to the West, 259, 
316 ; in the West, 410. 

Travel, in colonial days, 127; means of, 
128; routes of, 237, 259; stage-coach 
lines, 128, 129. 

Treason Law, revived, 144. 

Treat, Governor, 76. 

Treaty, Penn with the Indians, 91; of 
Utrecht, 108; of Ryswick, 107; of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, 109; of Paris (viola¬ 
tion of by England and United States, 
195,) 114; (2nd) of Paris, 186; with Al¬ 
giers, 224; with Spain, 224; Jay’s, 
225; with the Indians at Toledo, 227; 
with France, 231; of San Ildefonso, 239; 
Florida, 239, 270; with Barbary states, 
240; of Ghent, 255; Russian, in 1824; 
272; Webster-Ashburton, 290; Oregon 
boundary, 306; Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 
311; with Japan, 322; Washington, 
408; at close of Spanish-American War, 
448; Clayton-Bulwer, 476; Burlingame, 
476; Hay-Pauncefote, 476; with Pan¬ 
ama, 476. 

Trent, Captain William, 110. 

Trent Affair, 363. 

Trenton, Washington at, 163; British at, 
163 ; battle of, 163. 

Trusts, 431 ; growth of, 433. 

Treasury, United States, picture of, 434; 
destroying paper money at (picture), 
435. 

Tupelo, 353. 

Tyler, John, Vice-President, 289; Presi¬ 
dent, 289; portrait, 290; difficulties 
with Congress, 289. 

Type, movable, first used, 16. 


“Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” 324. 

Underground Railroad, 319. 

Union Labor party, 432. 

Union Pacific Railroad, 411 ; frauds of, 417. 

Union Republican party, 378. 

United Christian party, 480. 

United Colonies of New England, 75. 

United Labor party, 432. 

United States, United Colonies become the 
United States, 159, 186, 187; recognized 
as world power, 450 ; treaty with Panama, 
476; center of area of, 457; center of 
population 1910, 456. 

United States, 253. 

United States Bonds—see Bonds. 

LTnited States Bank—see National Bank. 

United States notes, 394 ; interest-bearing, 
394 ; noninterest-bearing, 394. 

Upland (now Chester), Penn at, 90. 

Utah, Mormons in, 000; acquired, 312; 
organized, 318 ; admitted, 412. 

Utrecht, treaty of, 108. 


518 


History of the United States. 


Valley Forge, Revolutionary army at, 
169; winter quarters at, 170. 

Van Dorn, General, 356. 

Van Buren, Martin, portrait, 285; Presi¬ 
dent, 285. 

Van Rensselaer (Dutch Patroon) , 81. 

Van Rensselaer, General, expedition of, 252. 

Vane, Sir Henry, 72. 

Velasquez, 28. 

Venezuela boundary, settled by arbitra¬ 
tion, 438. 

Venice, center of commerce, 16. 

Vera Cruz, Cortez at, 28; battle of, 310. 

Vermont, admitted, 266 ; prohibits slavery, 
266. 

Vespucius, Americus, reaches Mexico, 25; 
portrait, 25. 

Verrazono, explores Atlantic coast, 31. 

Veterans of the Civil War, 389. 

Vicksburg, Grant’s first attempt to capture, 
356; second movement, 357; siege and 
capture of, 357. 

“Vigilance Committees,”. 315. 

Vincennes, Clark captures, 175. 

Vinland, 14. 

Virginia, 363. 

Virginia, granted, named. 36; colonized, 
36 ; second colonization, 36 ; granted to 
London Company, 50; charter to, 50; 
second charter, 53; settled, 52; grant 
changed, 54; slavery introduced, 56; 
Indian wars, 56, 60; royal province, 57; 
period of oppression, 58; opposes Stamp 
Act, 141; college in, 129 ; church estab¬ 
lished by law, 51; campaign in, during 
Revolution, 184; cedes western land, 
191; military reserve, 192; plan of con¬ 
stitution, 196; resolutions, 141; and 
Kentucky resolutions, 232; peace con¬ 
ference, 336; secedes, 345; counties 
secede from, 345; reconstruction, 401. 

Virginia City, Nev., settled, 409. 

Virginia Company, 50. 

Volunteering, during Civil War, in the 
North, 377 ; in the South, 377. 

Wadsworth, Captain, hides Connecticut 
charter, 76. 

Walker, Robert J., Secretary of Treasurv, 
306. 

Walker, William, 323. 

Wallace, General Lew, 385. 

Wampanoag Indians, 65. 

War of the Spanish Succession, 107. 

Warner, Seth, 153. 

Warren, General, 155. 

Wars, European, 15, 106, 107, 109, 113, 169, 
243; Indian, 56, 69, 74, 82, 227, 248, 
416; colonial, 106-109; French and 
Indian, 109 ; Revolution, 151-186 ; with 
Barbary states, 240; of 1812, causes of, 
249 ; plan of, 249 ; effect of, 253 ; Black 
Hawk and Florida Indian, 286 ; Mexican, 
plans of, 308; results of, 311 ; Civil, 343- 
391; in the border states, 345; Spanish- 
American, 443-448. 

Washington, a territory, 412; growth of, 
412; admitted, 412. 

Washington,.capital of United States, 219; 
captured, 255 ; treasury established, 285 ; 
Virginia peace conference at, 336; dur¬ 
ing Civil War, 348; threatened by Con¬ 


federates, 369, 370, 385; grand review 
at, 388. 

Washington, Colonel, 181. 

Washington, George, portrait, 217; enters 
public service, 110; in French and Indian 
War, 110-112; commander-in-chief, 154; 
in Revolution, 154-189 ; picture of, cross¬ 
ing the Delaware, 163; President Con¬ 
stitutional Convention, 196; President, 
200; inauguration of, 217 ; proclamation 
of neutrality, 226; retirement of, 227. 

Washington, treaty of, 408. 

Waterloo, battle of, 226. 

Wayne, Anthony, at Stony Point, 176; in 
Northwest, 227. 

Weaver, James B., presidential nominee, 
422, 436. 

Webster-Asburton treaty, 290. 

Webster, Daniel, portrait, 280, 317; op¬ 
poses nullification, 280; Secretary of 
State, 289 ; negotiates treaty with Eng¬ 
land, 290; debates on slavery, 316 ; death 
of, 320. 

Welland canal, 262. 

Wells, massacre, 107. 

Wesleys, John, 133; Charles, 133. 

West, settlement of, 409-412; discovery of 
gold in, 409 ; Indian troubles in, 416. 

West India trade, opened to United States, 
225. 

West Indies, discovered, 21 ; settled, 27; 
slaves introduced, 56; Spain loses, 448. 

West Jersey-—see New Jersey. 

West Point, American forces at, 161. 

West Virginia, 345; constitution formed, 
345; admitted, 345 ; slavery in, 346. 

Western movement—see Migration West. 

Western Reserve of Connecticut—see Con¬ 
necticut. 

Wethersfield, Conn., settled, 73. 

Weyler, General, governor of Cuba, 444. 

Weymouth, George, voyages, 37. 

Wheeler, William, Vice-President, 418. 

Whig party, 284. 

Whittier, John Greenlcaf, 466; portrait, 
465. 

Whisky Rebellion, 227. 

Whisky Ring, 417. 

White, John, 37. 

White House, burned, 255. 

White House Landing, depot of supplies, 
368. 

White Oak Swamp, battle of, 370. 

White Plains, battle of, 161 ; Continental 
army at, 172. 

Whitman, Marcus, 303. 

Whitefield, George, 133. 

Whitney, Eli, 222 ; portrait, 223. 

Wildcat state banks, 2S3. 

Wilderness, battles of, 384. 

Wilkinson, General, 252. 

Wilkes, Captain, 363. 

Williams, Roger, religious views, 72 ; exiled, 
72 ; picture of church, 72 ; settles Provi¬ 
dence, 76; picture, among Indians, 77. 

Williamsburg, seat of government, 60; 
Continental Army at, 185: battle of, 
368. 

Wilmington, N. C., British at, 183; cap¬ 
tured, 366. 

Wilmington, Del., settled, 83; during 
Revolution, 170. 

Wilmot, David, 312. 


Index. 


519 


Wilmot Proviso, 312. 

Wilson, Henry, 413. 

Wilson, James, member Constitutional Con¬ 
vention, 190. 

Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act, 439. 

Wilson’s Creek, battle of, 346. 

Winchester, battle of, 369, 385. 

Winchester, General, 251. 

Windsor, Conn., settled, 73. 

Winslow, Captain, 365. 

Winthrop, John, 67 ; portrait, 67. 

Wireless telegraphy, 452. 

Wirt, William, presidential candidate, 282. 

Wisconsin, admitted, 307. 

Wisconsin river, Marquette and Joliet ex¬ 
plore, 101. 

Wolfe, General James, 114. 

Woman’s Relief Corps, 389. 

Wood, General Leonard, 447; in command 
in Cuba, 469. 

Woodward, Wilford, 293. . 

World’s Fairs (see Industrial Expositions), 
New York, 322; Philadelphia, Centen¬ 
nial, 196; Chicago, Columbian Exposi¬ 
tion, 438 ; Buffalo, Pan-American Expo¬ 


sition, 478; St. Louis, Louisiana Purchase 
Exposition, 478. 

Writs of Assistance, 138. 

Wyandotte Constitution, 329. 

Wyoming acquired, 312; admitted, 412. 
Wyoming valley, massacre, 174. 

X-ray, 452. 

X. Y. Z. affair, 230. 


Yale College, 129. 

Yazoo river, 188. 

Yeardley, 54. 

Yeddo Bay, 322. 

York (now Toronto), captured, 252. 

York, Pa., Continental Congress at, 170. 
York, Duke of, 83. 

York river, Union forces on, 368. 
Yorktown, 368; fortified, 184 ; surrendered 
by Cornwallis, 185 ; seized by McClellan, 
366. 

Young, Brigham, 293. 

Yukon, 477. 


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